Raoul McLaughlin - The Roman Empire and the Silk Routes: The Ancient World Economy and the Empires of Parthia, Central Asia and Han China

First published in Great Britain in 2016 by

PEN & SWORD HISTORY

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Copyright Raoul McLaughlin, 2016

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Contents

List of Plates

Acknowledgements

I was educated at Lagan College in Belfast, the first cross-community integrated school to be established in Northern Ireland, founded to offer young people of all cultural and economic backgrounds an education free from the divisions of race, religion or social class.

My undergraduate degree in Archaeology and Ancient History was completed in Belfast and the early stage of my doctoral research was financed by the Northern Ireland Department of Education and Learning (between 2002 and 2005). In the absence of further funding, I used my spare time and limited earnings to continue this research and in 2010 I completed my monograph, Rome and the Distant East. This was followed by the publication of The Roman Empire and the Indian Ocean by Pen & Sword Press in 2014.

Publishing my research in a series of books without the support of an academic position or regular income has created personal hardship and would not have been possible without the generosity of my parents. This book is therefore dedicated to my immediate family, my parents, my brother Leon and my sister Thayna.

Raoul McLaughlin
Belfast
September 2015

Abbreviations

C.I.L. = Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum.

I.L.S. = Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae.

Periplus = The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea.

The Muziris Papyrus = P. Vindob. G. 40822 (Papyri Vindobonensis Graecus).

Chronology

Early period

550330 BC: The Persian Achaemenid Empire rules western Asia.

334323 BC: Alexander of Macedon conquers the Persian Empire and the Indus kingdoms.

323303 BC: The Macedonian Empire splits into rival Hellenic kingdoms.

250 BC: Greek commanders establish a separatist kingdom in Bactria.

238 BC: A steppe warlord named Arsaces forms the Parthian Kingdom (Iran).

230221 BC: The Six Chinese States are conquered by Qin.

221 BC: Qin regime unifies China. Qin Shi Huang becomes the First Emperor.

210 BC: Death of the First Emperor Qin Shi Huang.

209 BC: Formation of the Xiongnu Empire under the rule of Chanyu Modu.

209 BC: The Seleucid King Antiochus III campaigns in Bactria.

206 BC: Liu Bang becomes the King of Han.

202 BC: Liu Bang becomes the first Han Emperor of China.

200 BC: The Chinese are unable to defeat the Xiongnu and agree peace terms.

Second century BC

192188 BC: Roman armies defeat the Seleucid King Antiochus III.

180 BC: Demetrius I of Bactria begins a conquest of the Indus Kingdoms.

176174 BC: The Xiongnu expel the Yuezhi nation from their homelands.

155 BC: The Sakas are forced westward by the Yuezhi as they occupy Transoxiana.

150 BC: The Parthians inflict severe losses on the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom.

148138 BC: Parthians conquer Iran and Iraq from the Seleucid Kingdom.

145 BC: The Greco-Bactrian Kingdom is overrun by Saka war-bands.

141 BC: The Han Emperor Wu comes to power.

139124 BC: The Han envoy Zhang Qian explores Central Asia.

133 BC: China begins renewed offensives against the Xiongnu.

123 BC: China campaigns to control the Hexi Corridor and reach the Tarim States.

124 BC: The Yuezhi defeat a Parthian army.

120 BC: The Yuezhi move from Transoxiana into Bactria.

12063 BC: Reign of Mithridates IV of Pontus in Asia Minor.

118 BC: Greek ships begin voyages from Egypt to India.

104101 BC: Chinese armies attack Ferghana to acquire superior horses.

100 BC: China gains control over the Tarim States.

100 BC: Parthia sends envoys to China.

First century BC

6663 BC: Pompey brings Asia Minor and Syria under Roman control.

6051 BC: The Xiongnu are split by civil war and become subject to China.

53 BC: Parthians massacre an invading Roman army led by Crassus.

50 BC: Sakas establish royal regimes in the Upper Indus region.

50 BC: The Sarmatians invade and occupy the Pontic Steppe.

36 BC: Mark Antony leads a failed Roman invasion of Parthia.

36 BC: Chinese-led Tarim troops defeat Chanyu Zhizhi near Lake Balkhash.

31 BC: The Roman general Octavian defeats Mark Antony and annexes Egypt.

27 BC: Octavian becomes the first Roman Emperor Augustus.

20 BC: Political agreement securing peace between Rome and Parthia.

10 BC: Parthian Princes conquer the Indus Kingdoms from the Sakas.

1 BC: Renewed peace agreement between Rome and Parthia.

First century AD

AD 923: Wang Mang gains power and the Tarim kingdoms cede from China.

AD 25: Restoration of the Han Dynasty at the new imperial capital Louyang.

AD 35: Caucasus Kingdoms recruit Sarmatian war-bands to attack Armenia.

AD 44: The Greek philosopher Apollonius visits northwest India.

AD 49: Revolt in the Chersonesos Kingdom and Roman-Aorsi alliance.

AD 50: Periplus of the Erythraean Sea describes Roman voyages to India.

AD 50: Kujula Kadphises unites the Yuezhi nation and forms the Kushan Empire.

AD 55: Kujula Kadphises attacks the Parthian Empire.

AD 60: Iazyges occupy the Hungarian plain forcing refugees across the Danube.

AD 69: Roxolani raid Roman territory across the Lower Danube frontier.

AD 75: Alani raid Armenia and attack Parthia.

AD 7497: General Ban Chao re-establishes Han control over the Tarim kingdoms.

AD 80100: Vima Takto conquers the Indus Kingdoms and northern India.

AD 87: The Parthians send envoys to Han China.

AD 89: The Han decisively defeat the Northern Xiongnu.

AD 90: A Kushan army attacks Han forces in the western Tarim territories.

AD 92: Iazyges raid Roman territory and destroy a Roman Legion.

AD 97: Chinese envoy Gan Ying sent to make contact with the Roman Empire.

Second Century AD

AD 101: Syrian merchant Maes Titianus sends his agents to Han China.

AD 105106: Trajan completes the conquest of Dacia.

AD 106: Indian/Kushan envoys attend Trajans victory celebrations in Rome.

AD 114116: Trajan invades the Parthian Empire.