Glen Lyndon Dodds - Hastings to Culloden: Battles in Britain, 1066–1746

HASTINGS 14 October 1066

If anyone desires to know what kind of man he was or in what honour he was held... then we will write of him just as we perceived him.... King William, of whom we speak, was a man of great wisdom and power, and surpassed in honour and strength all those who had gone before him. He was mild with good men who loved God, though stern beyond measure to those who opposed his will.

Anglo-Saxon Chronicle

According to the 12th century historian, Wace, William of Normandy was preparing to hunt near Rouen when he received news that his cousin Edward the Confessor, Englands king, had died and had been replaced by his brother-in-law, Harold Godwineson, Earl of Wessex. It is reported that the news, which arrived on or around 10 January 1066, threw the duke into such a fearful temper that only William fitzOsbern, one of his closest friends, dared talk to him.

Just where William received the news of Harolds accession is in fact uncertain. What is beyond doubt is that he reacted angrily. He felt that he had been cheated the crown should have been his. William had a number of reasons for believing that the kingdom of England should have passed to him upon the death of the Confessor. It is evident that in 1051 or 1052 Edward had promised the succession to him, a natural enough promise for the childless monarch to have made to his cousin, for Edward had grown up in Normandy while living as an exile and thus had strong Norman sympathies. Furthermore, in 1064 or 1065 Harold himself had promised, while in the duchy, to help William secure the English crown upon the demise of the Confessor.

It is highly probable that Edward expressly sent Harold to Normandy to make this promise for he was the most powerful nobleman in England and without his backing the dukes chances of ascending the throne were slim. According to a biography of William written in c.1074 by his chaplain, William of Poitiers, while an honoured guest in the duchy Harold swore an oath that he would do all in his power to assure [Duke William] the possession of the English kingdom after the death of Edward, and some other sources, such as the Bayeux Tapestry (which likely dates from c.1080), maintain that he swore the oath whilst touching holy relics. Subsequent events, however, proved that this was not a promise the Englishman intended to honour. It was, he later claimed, sworn under duress. Consequently, Harold had no qualms about ascending the English throne himself upon Edwards death on 5 January 1066: if William wanted the crown he would have to fight for it.

William was equal to the challenge. Following the news of Harolds accession he began planning to take by war what he considered his by right. An adroit politician, he fully realized the importance of creating a favourable atmosphere for his endeavours. Thus a delegation was sent to Rome to gain papal approval for an invasion of England and there can be little doubt that the duke fully expected to receive support. He had tried to bring about a peaceful settlement (an embassy had been sent to England to demand that Harold step down) but had only met with intransigence from Harold. Furthermore, William was held in high regard by the papacy for he had been very generous to the Church, while for various reasons Englands ecclesiastics were out of favour in Rome. Not surprisingly, matters went Williams way. He received authorization for an invasion and a papal bull excommunicating Harold and his supporters. His planned campaign had the seal of approval: it was to be a Holy Crusade.

William now set about winning the support of his barons for he needed their backing if he were to carry out his projected military venture. He had little difficulty with his greatest vassals. They were generally closest to him and in many cases owed their wealth and position to his patronage. However, the lesser barons were not so easily won over. After failing to gain their collective support at a great meeting at Lillebonne, William resorted to seeing them individually, promising them wealth and glory in return for their services if the invasion were a success. By such means the hitherto unwilling barons pledged their assistance.

It is understandable why many were uneasy about the planned campaign. Warfare is after all a risky business, and a seaborne invasion in particular would be daunting. Furthermore, Harold was a fine warrior. He had fought alongside William against the Count of Brittany during his visit to Normandy and had distinguished himself while doing so. He would no doubt prove a worthy adversary, and could be expected to lead a formidable army.

Though William now had the backing of the pope and his barons, was Normandy strong enough and sufficiently wealthy for the massive undertaking it faced? Moreover, who were the Normans?

The duchy of Normandy had originated in 911. One of Williams Viking ancestors, a chieftain by the name of Rollo, made an agreement with the French king, Charles III, whereby he and his followers would accept Charles sovereignty and renounce paganism in return for his recognition of their possession of lands which they had occupied in the valley of the River Seine. Then, in later years, the Norsemen gained control of neighbouring territory which included places such as Bayeux, Caen and Falaise.