Michael Swift - Defining Moments: The Civil War

Copyright TAJ Books Ltd, 2005

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ISBN 1-59223-435-6

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Introduction

I n 1860, the United States of America was still a young country; it was less than 90 years since the Declaration of Independence had seen the country throw off its colonial ties to Great Britain. It was also a country that was expanding rapidly as settlers moved westward from the eastern seaboard into the Midwest and beyond.

Following the Treaty of Paris of 1783, which settled the War of Independence, the form of the new nation was still not finalized. Within the original Thirteen Colonies of New England there was no definite agreement as to the nature of the post-colonial era. In each state there were those who argued for a federal structure and those who argued for the independence of each individual colony. On May 25, 1787, the Constitutional Convention opened in Philadelphia. For the next four months, the convention argued about the new constitution before agreeing, on September 17, to promote a federal structure. Each former colony had to then ratify the new constitution. The first state to ratify the constitution was Delaware on December 7, 1787; the last was Rhode Island on May 29, 1790. Apart from the original colonies, the United States also included the territories to the east of the Mississippi, such as Kentucky and Tennessee, which had been previously French, but ceded to Britain in 1763. These were only gradually to achieve statehood: Kentucky in 1792, Tennessee in 1796, Ohio in 1803, Mississippi in 1817, and Alabama in 1819.

Even after the War of Independence, there were areasin particular the areas that were later to form the states of Michigan, Illinois, and Indianawhere the British claimed jurisdiction. These lands were only ceded to the United States in 1795 after the Jay Treaty. Known initially as the Northwest Territory, these regions were gradually carved into new states and the native Indian population subjugated.

The first half of the 19th century was the period of expansion, as the United States grew from its east coast beginnings to span the continent. First there was the Louisiana Purchase of 1803 when the Emperor Napoleon sold the region for $15 million. Next, the Mississippi delta was annexed from Spain in 1810 and 1812. This acquisition was followed in 1819 by Spain ceding three further territories: Florida, the acquisition of which was ratified by the United States in 1821; the area of Louisiana to the west of the Mississippi delta; and the southwestern part of the future state of Oklahoma. In the north, improved relations with the British saw the regularization of the U.S.Canadian border in 1818 along the 49th parallel: Britain ceded the northern part of North Dakota and Minnesota and gained an area to the north on Montana in compensation. In 1842 the Webster-Ashburton Treaty with Britain regularized the border of Maine and Canada, seeing the U.S. expand to the north up to Fort Kent, and also the section of Minnesota along the coast of Lake Superior. The last U.S.British territorial settlement concerned Oregon Countrythe region which was to form the future states of Washington, Oregon, Idaho, and the western part of Montanawhich had been jointly held by Britain and the U.S. since 1818 and which was transferred to U.S. sovereignty in 1846. Although the settlement was achieved peacefully, the dispute over this regionwith the British fearing that the U.S. would seek jurisdiction as far north and the 54th parallelwas the closest that Britain and the U.S. came to war after 1812.

Further south, the largely English-speaking settlers of Texas revolted against their Mexican overlords in 1835, declaring the Texan Republic on March 2, 1836, with a constitution largely based upon that adopted by the U.S. at the end of the 18th century. War broke out between the settlers and the Mexican authorities, who were eager to see their powers restored. It was during this war that the famous battle at the Alamo took place, when a small rebel force held out against a numerically much larger Mexican army. The rebel forces had the advantage of holding a strong fortress against a largely conscript and untrained government army, but numbers in the end won the day for the Mexicans. Not all the rebels were killed in the battle; a number, including Davy Crockett, survived and were later executed. The defeat at the Alamo was followed by a massacre at Goliad of some 350 rebels. The Texan army under General Sam Houston redressed the balance, defeating the Mexicans on April 21, 1836, after which Texan independence was recognized.

The United States recognized Texan independence in July 1836 but, on August 25, 1837, turned down an initial approach for the new republic to join the Union. The Lone Star Republic was, however, only to have a short independent life; on December 29, 1845, Texas became the 28th state. Part of the territory was to form the eastern part of New Mexico while part became southwestern Kansas.

Zachary Taylor (1784-1850) became the 12th President of the United States.

This led to a border war with Mexico. The United States claimed the border should now be formed by the Rio Grande and not the Nueces River, which had been regarded as the border up until that point. The U.S. authorities also objected to a Mexican prohibition on the further migration of English-speaking settlers in California. On March 8, 1846, U.S. forces led by General Zachary Taylor crossed the Nueces into the disputed territory between that river and the Rio Grande. Following the death of 11 Americans on April 25, 1846, the U.S. declared war on Mexico on May 11, invading north California, where U.S. settlers revolted at Sonoma (the Bear Flag Revolt of June 14, 1846), just to the north of San Francisco, along the Gila River. Victories at Monterrey (September 2124, 1846), San Gabriel (January 8, 1847), Buena Vista (February 22/23, 1847), and Chapultepec (September 13, 1847) saw U.S. forces occupy many of the major Mexican cities, including Mexico City itself, San Francisco, Santa Barbara, Santa Fe, Albuquerque, and Veracruz. The war was settled by the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, which became effective on July 4, 1848; for the price of $15 million, the U.S. acquired California and New Mexico, and the Mexican authorities also waived all claims on Texas. The final border settlement in this region came with the Gadsen Purchase of 1852, when the U.S. acquired the southernmost parts of New Mexico and Arizona.