Gordon L. Rottman - US 10th Mountain Division in World War II

From a position turned into a mudhole by the thaw of early spring 1945, an 81mm mortar squad lay down a barrage in support of one of their battalions rifle companies. The long packing tubes indicate that they are firing a high percentage of the heavy type of HE rounds, more effective against bunkers. (Tom Laemlein/Armor Plate Press)

T he employment of mountain troops has a long tradition in Europe. The Italian Corpo Alpini (Alpine Corps) established in 1872 was the oldest organization of specialist mountain troops; France formed the Chasseurs Alpins (Alpine light infantry) in 1888, to counter the Italians if necessary, and Austria-Hungary raised several Gebirgsbrigaden (mountain brigades) in 1907. After engaging French mountain troops in the Vosges Mountains in 1914, Germany decided to raise a division-sized Alpenkorps to fight alongside the Austro-Hungarians against the Italians in 1916.

After World War I, Germany possessed no mountain units other than three Bavarian regiments with mountain training. These were consolidated into the Gebirgs-Brigade in 1935; this expanded into 1. Gebirgs-Division in 1938, and later that year two additional mountain divisions were organized from Austrian units. No other mountain divisions would be raised until 1940, but by 1944 Germany had ten such formations. Although only one of them fought in Italy (5. Gebirgs-Division, from late 1943 to the end of the war), two of the 11 Jger-Divisionen (42. and 114.) fought on that front; these, too, were light divisions designed for rough-terrain operations.

German mountain troops, identified by the Edelweiss badge on the right sleeve and on the left of the Bergmtze mountain cap, are congratulated during an awards ceremony. The Gebirgsjger divisions, largely manned by Bavarians and Austrians, influenced the American decision to raise mountain warfare units. (Courtesy Concord Publications)

The US Army had had little or no historical need for mountain troops, but the advent of World War II changed that perception. It was assessed that there would be a potential need for such units in mountainous and cold-climate areas such as Alaska, Norway, Italy, Romania, and Southern Germany.

The challenges of mountain warfare are daunting. Operating at higher altitude means fatigue and diminished efficiency owing to reduced oxygen and the effects of cold. Rapid weather changes with possible rain, sleet, snow, fog and high winds slow down movement, already difficult due to steeply inclined terrain scattered with loose rocks and cut by gullies, ravines, rushing streams and rivers. Trees and brush can hamper movement and observation, but provide concealment, and the often abundant trees provide construction materials for bridges, fortifications, and obstacles. At higher altitudes there will be no vegetation; in Europe the tree-line is typically at 6,0008,000ft (1,8304,240m) above sea level. Depending on vegetation, and the proximity of ridges or valleys, fields of observation and fire can be either extremely restricted or quite wide.

In the early US units much training time was spent on technical rock-climbing skills, mostly by volunteers who already had extensive civilian experience such demanding techniques could not be taught to the uninitiated in a few weeks. Even experienced mountaineers had difficulty getting used to practicing their art while carrying rifles and military equipment. This alpinist wears a ski-mountain cap, the early-issue ski parka reversible from light olive drab to white, mountain trousers, ski-mountain boots and gaiters. (Tom Laemlein/Armor Plate Press)

In World War II movement was often channeled and predictable, to the benefit of defenders, though trained mountain troops might be able to locate and negotiate unexpected routes. Roads were restricted to a few traversing valleys or passes, and even foot and mule trails were scarce, so most movement had to be conducted over rugged, unimproved routes. This limited the amount of ammunition, supplies, fuel, and equipment brought forward. Motor vehicles were virtually impossible to use, making it unavoidable to employ mule- and man-packing, along with some use of handcarts. This slow and exhausting process greatly reduced the amount of materials that could be sent into the frontline. Equally, casualty evacuation was slow and difficult. The ability to construct bridges and culverts, improve roads and trails, and erect tramways and cableways was essential. There were also hazards from avalanches, rockslides, and mudslides. The limited numbers of avenues of approach usually narrow could easily be blocked by a small defending force using mines, machine guns, mortars, and artillery. Attacks were often restricted to the avenue of approach itself, with few opportunities for outflanking or enveloping attacks.

In extreme instances skis and snowshoes were necessary to traverse snow, which further drastically slowed operations; in extreme cold and snow it can take at least twice as long to accomplish even the simplest tasks. High altitudes mean oxygen deprivation: altitude sickness is felt by the unacclimatized above 6,000ft (1,830m), and can be disabling. Mountain troops frequently suffered higher rates of illness, accidental injuries, and weather injuries than combat casualties. Leg and foot injuries were common, and the troops fitness and health were threatened by hypothermia (lowering of the core body temperature known as exposure in World War II), frostbite, dehydration, immersion foot, snow-blindness, and upper respiratory illnesses.

Most mountain troops were not in fact trained in technical climbing that is, using ropes, carabiners and pitons to climb vertical cliffs. Nor were they trained to use ice picks, crampons spiked ice-climbers attached to boots or man-portable oxygen tanks. (Oxygen is necessary above 10,000ft/3,050m, but combat seldom if ever took place at such high altitudes.) Some small specialist units might be so trained and equipped, but they were seldom needed; it was rare for military operations to be attempted under such unreasonable conditions, where nothing much of value could be achieved.

Mountain troops had to be highly conditioned, acclimatized, and motivated to survive and operate in their environment. The levels of physical fitness demanded were far beyond those of regular troops, and they had to be mentally prepared for the challenges. Specialized clothing was necessary, to provide protection from extreme cold and wet conditions while still allowing ease of movement. Such troops also had to carry heavier individual loads than regular troops extra heavy clothing and sleeping bags, and also ammunition and rations for perhaps several days. The mountain warfare environment could range from sub-zero snow conditions or high winds, fog, sleet and freezing rain, to bright, clear days with mild and even warm temperatures, and the troops had to be clothed and equipped for this whole spectrum of conditions.