Allen Horstman - European History: 145 to 1648 Essentials

The papacy, recognized as the leader of the western church since at least the thirteenth century, encountered a series of problems in the late Middle Ages which reduced the prestige of popes and interfered with their ability to deal with the problems underlying the criticisms.

Babylonian Captivity. In 1309, after a confrontation with the king of France, a new pope, Clement V was elected. He was a Frenchman and never went to Rome, settling instead in Avignon, near the French kingdom. While not held captive by the French kings, the popes in Avignon were seen as subservient to them. Also the atmosphere was one of luxury, and the popes concentrated on money and bureaucratic matters, not spiritual leadership. Popes resided in Avignon from 1309 to 1377.

Great Schism. In 1377 Pope Gregory XI returned to Rome, ending the Babylonian Captivity but soon died. Disputes over the election of his successor led to the election of two popes, one of whom stayed in Rome (Urban VI), the other (Clement VII) returning to Avignon. The monarchs chose different sides (England and Germany for Rome; France, Scotland, Aragon, Castile, Portugal, and Italian city-states for Avignon), while neither pope prosecuted any reforms of the church. The existence of two popes lasted until 1417.

Conciliar Movement. Marsiglio of Padua (1270 1342), in his Defensor Pacis (Defender of the Peace), published in 1324, a half-century before the Great Schism, contended that the church should be subordinate to the state. He also believed that the church had no inherent right to own property or hold jurisdiction. Marsiglio also asserted that the authority within the Christian church should be vested in a general council composed of priests and laymen who would be superior to the pope. Defensor Pacis was condemned by the pope and Marsiglio was excommunicated.

Efforts after 1409 by councils at Pisa (1409) and Constance (1414 8) united the church under one pope (Martin V) but failed to effect any reform of abuses, as all such efforts ended in struggles between the pope and councils over power in the church. Martin and his successors rejected the conciliar movement.

Renaissance Popes. After 1447, a series of popes encouraged and supported much artistic work in Rome. While their personal lives were often criticized for sexual excess, these popes took more interest in political, military, and artistic activities than church reform. Sixtus IV (1471 84) started the painting of the Sistine Chapel which his nephew, Julius II (1503 13), whom Sixtus had promoted within the church, finished with the employment of Michelangelo to paint the ceiling. Julius also successfully asserted his control over the Papal States in central Italy. These popes did not cause the Reformation, but they failed to do anything which might have averted it.