Table of Contents
N. KATHERINE HAYLES is professor of English at the University of California, Los Angeles. She holds degrees in both chemistry and English. She is the author of The Cosmic Web: Scientific Field Models and Literary Strategies in the Twentieth Century (1984) and Chaos Bound: Orderly Disorder in Contemporary Literature and Science (1990) and is the editor of Chaos and Order: Complex Dynamics in Literature and Science (1991), the last published by the University of Chicago Press.
The University of Chicago Press, Chicago 60637
The University of Chicago Press, Ltd., London
1999 by The University of Chicago
All rights reserved. Published 1999
Printed in the United States of America
08 07 06 05 04 03 02 01 00 3 4 5
ISBN (cloth): 0-226-32145-2
ISBN (paper): 0-226-32146-0
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Hayles, N. Katherine.
How we became posthuman : virtual bodies in cybernetics, literature, and informatics / N. Katherine Hayles.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN: 0-226-32145-2 (cloth: alk. paper).ISBN: 0-226-32146-0 (pbk.: alk. paper)
1. Artificial intelligence. 2. Cybernetics. 3. Computer science. 4. Virtual reality. 5. Virtual reality in literature. I. Title.
Q335.H394 1999
003.5dc21 98-36459
CIP
The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of the American National Standard for the Information SciencesPermanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI Z39.48-1992.
For Nicholas
one of the worlds great technology archivists
and much more besides
Acknowledgments
The notion of distributed cognition, central to the posthuman as it is defined in this book, makes acknowledging intellectual and practical contributions to this project an inevitability as well as a pleasure. The arguments have benefited from conversations and correspondence with many friends and colleagues, among them Evelyn Fox Keller, Felicity Nussbaum, Rob Latham, Adalaide Morris, Brooks Landon, Peter Galison, Timothy Lenoir, Sandra Harding, Sharon Traweek, and Marjorie Luesebrink. Mark Poster and an anonymous reader for the University of Chicago Press gave valuable suggestions for revisions and rethinking parts of the argument. Tom Ray, Rodney Brooks, and Mark Tilden graciously spoke with me about their artificial life projects, and Stefan Helmreich shared with me an early version of his book on artificial life. Many of my students gave valuable feedback and criticism of early versions of my ideas, including Carol Wald, Jim Berkley, Kevin Fisher, Evan Nisonson, Mark Sander, Linda Whitford, and Jill Galvin.
I am also very grateful for the institutional support I have received, including a fellowship from the Guggenheim Foundation, a fellowship from the Stanford Humanities Center, a Presidential Research Fellowship from the University of California, support from the Council on Research at the University of California at Los Angeles, and a leave of absence and research support from the University of Iowa. I could not have completed this project without this generous support.
I owe a debt of gratitude as well to Routledge Press for allowing me to reprint Narratives of Artificial Life, from FutureNatural: Nature,Science, Culture , edited by George Robertson, Melinda Mash, Lisa Tickner, John Bird, Barry Curtis, and Tim Putnam, pp. 145-46, 1996 (appearing in revised form as chapter 9); and Designs on the Body: Cybernetics, Norbert Wiener, and the Play of Metaphor, from History of the Human Sciences 3 (1990): 212-28 (appearing in revised from as aportion of chapter 4). Johns Hopkins University Press has graciously allowed me to reprint three articles appearing in Configurations: A Journal of Literature, Science, and Technology The Materiality of Informatics, Configurations 1 (1993): 147-70 (appearing in revised form as a portion of chapter 8); Boundary Disputes: Homeostasis, Reflexivity, and the Foundations of Cybernetics, ibid. 3 ( 1994): 441-67 (appearing in revised form as part of chapter 3); and The Posthuman Body: Inscription and Incorporation in Galatea 2.2 and Snow Crash, ibid . 5 ( 1997): 241-66 (appearing as part of chapter 10). MIT Press has given permission to reprint Virtual Bodies and Flickering Signifiers, from October 66 (Fall 1993): 69-91 (appearing in slightly revised form as chapter 2). The University of North Carolina Press has given permission to reprint a portion of Voices Out of Bodies, Bodies Out of Voices, from Sound States: Innovative Poetics and Acoustical Technologies, edited by Adalaide Morris, pp. 74-78, 86-96, 1997 by The University of North Carolina Press (appearing in revised form as a part of chapter 8). The Journal of the Fantastic in the Arts has given permission to reprint Schizoid Android: Cybernetics and the Mid-60s Novels of Dick, JFIA 8 (1997): 419-42 (appearing in slightly revised form as chapter 6).
Finally, my greatest debt is to my family, who have listened patiently to my ideas over the years, and to my husband, Nick Gessler, from whom I have learned more than I can say.
Prologue
You are alone in the room, except for two computer terminals flickering in the dim light. You use the terminals to communicate with two entities in another room, whom you cannot see. Relying solely on their responses to your questions, you must decide which is the man, which the woman. Or, in another version of the famous imitation game proposed by Alan Turing in his classic 1950 paper Computer Machinery and Intelligence, you use the responses to decide which is the human, which the machine.1 One of the entities wants to help you guess correctly. His/her/its best strategy, Turing suggested, may be to answer your questions truthfully. The other entity wants to mislead you. He/she/it will try to reproduce through the words that appear on your terminal the characteristics of the other entity. Your job is to pose questions that can distinguish verbal performance from embodied reality. If you cannot tell the intelligent machine from the intelligent human, your failure proves, Turing argued, that machines can think.
Here, at the inaugural moment of the computer age, the erasure of embodiment is performed so that intelligence becomes a property of the formal manipulation of symbols rather than enaction in the human lifeworld. The Turing test was to set the agenda for artificial intelligence for the next three decades. In the push to achieve machines that can think, researchers performed again and again the erasure of embodiment at the heart of the Turing test. All that mattered was the formal generation and manipulation of informational patterns. Aiding this process was a definition of information, formalized by Claude Shannon and Norbert Wiener, that conceptualized information as an entity distinct from the substrates carrying it. From this formulation, it was a small step to think of information as a kind of bodiless fluid that could flow between different substrates without loss of meaning or form. Writing nearly four decades after Turing, Hans Moravec proposed that human identity is essentially an informational pattern rather than an embodied enaction. The proposition can be demonstrated, he suggested, by downloading human consciousness into a computer, and he imagined a scenario designed to show that this was in principle possible. The Moravec test, if I may call it that, is the logical successor to the Turing test. Whereas the Turing test was designed to show that machines can perform the thinking previously considered to be an exclusive capacity of the human mind, the Moravec test was designed to show that machines can become the repository of human consciousnessthat machines can, for all practical purposes, become human beings. You are the cyborg, and the cyborg is you.
