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Sandra M. Gustafson - Eloquence Is Power: Oratory and Performance in Early America

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Oratory emerged as the first major form of verbal art in early America because, as John Quincy Adams observed in 1805, eloquence was POWER. In this book, Sandra Gustafson examines the multiple traditions of sacred, diplomatic, and political speech that flourished in British America and the early republic from colonization through 1800. She demonstrates that, in the American crucible of cultures, contact and conflict among Europeans, native Americans, and Africans gave particular significance and complexity to the uses of the spoken word. Gustafson develops what she calls the performance semiotic of speech and text as a tool for comprehending the rich traditions of early American oratory. Embodied in the delivery of speeches, she argues, were complex projections of power and authenticity that were rooted in or challenged text-based claims of authority. Examining oratorical performances as varied as treaty negotiations between native and British Americans, the eloquence of evangelical women during the Great Awakening, and the founding fathers debates over the Constitution, Gustafson explores how orators employed the shifting symbolism of speech and text to imbue their voices with power.

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Contents Eloquence Is Power The Omohundro Institute of Early American History - photo 1
Contents

Eloquence Is Power

The Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture is sponsored jointly by the College of William and Mary and the Colonial Williamsburg Foundation. On November 15, 1996, the Institute adopted the present name in honor of a bequest from Malvern H. Omohundro, Jr.

2000 The University of North Carolina Press

All rights reserved

Set in Minion and Bickham types by

Tseng Information Systems, Inc.

Manufactured in the United States of America

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Gustafson, Sandra M.

Eloquence Is Power : performance and oratory in early America / Sandra M. Gustafson.

p. cm.

Based on the authors thesis (Ph.D.University of California, Berkeley).

Includes index.

ISBN 0-8078-2575-1 (cloth : alk. paper)

ISBN 0-8078-4888-3 (pbk. : alk. paper)

1. OratoryUnited StatesHistory17th century.

2. OratoryUnited StatesHistory18th century.

3. Speeches, addresses, etc., AmericanHistory and criticism. I. Title.

PN4055.U5 G87 2000

808.51097309032dc21 99-086591

The paper in this book meets the guidelines for permanence and durability of the Committee on Production Guidelines for Book Longevity of the Council on Library Resources.

04 03 02 01 00 5 4 3 2 1

For Tobias Stephen Ginsburg (b. April 29, 1999) and in memory of Stephen James Gustafson (19751994)

Acknowledgments

This book began as a dissertation written under the direction of the late Jenny Franchot, whose intellectual vibrancy, acumen, and enthusiasm remain among my most important influences. Also at Berkeley, Mitchell Breitwieser and Lawrence Levine provided crucial support and guidance. At the University of Notre Dame, Christopher Fox has been an unflagging mentor and friend who as department chair granted the leaves that made it possible for me to produce the book that I wished to write. My colleagues Barbara Green, Julia Douthwaite, and Glenn Hendler have been good friends, valuable interlocutors, and incisive critics.

The scholars at the Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture provided a road map to the scholarship of early America during my two years there. Fredrika J. Teute has been a rigorous and creative editor. M. Kathryn Burdette has polished my prose and sought the perfect balance between substance and brevity in the notes. Sally Masons warmth and good cheer have helped me through some difficult times and buoyed me in the good ones.

A number of people have inspired me with their examples and encouraged me by their interest, among them Jay Fliegelman, David D. Hall, Janice Knight, David S. Shields, and Frank Shuffelton. Adam Potkays work intersected with mine in a particularly felicitous way, while Alfred Young shared my enthusiasm for Deborah Sampson Gannett. Writing groups and workshops at the Institute, Berkeley, Notre Dame, and in Chicago have given me valuable feedback on individual chapters. Two medievalist friends, Laura Severt King and Willis Johnson, have helped me keep my sense of humor and equilibrium.

A number of sources have contributed in a monetary way to the production of this book. My Institute postdoctoral fellowship was partially funded by the NEH. Earlier, I had fellowship support from UCBerkeley, the Woodrow Wilson Foundation, and Phi Beta Kappa. I am grateful to all of these institutions for their financial support and for the confidence they continue to show in humanities scholarship.

Sections of Chapter 1 are adapted from Jonathan Edwards and the Reconstruction of Feminine Speech, American Literary History, VI (1994), 185212. I thank Oxford University Press for permission to reprint this article in modified form.

Throughout the making of this book, John L. and Ellen Gustafson have been unfailingly supportive. Their love and confidence are invaluable. Allene Gustafson has nurtured my historical sense with her experience of nearly a century and nourished me with her affection. John A. Gustafsons wit and fine scholarship have set me a worthy example. Eric Ginsburg has taught me that the two cultures of science and the humanities can indeed be wed, with the help of some time spent in the wilderness.

Finally, this book is dedicated to the memory of my brother Stephen Gustafson, who died just as the book began to emerge from the dissertation, and to his nephew and namesake Tobias Stephen Ginsburg, who was born as it was nearing completion. The unexpected loss of Steve and the joy of Tobiass arrival mark every page for me.

Contents
Illustrations

Figure 1. Reverend Jonathan Edwards

Figure 2. Mrs. Jonathan Edwards

Figure 3. The Reverend Samson Occom

Figure 4. Samson Occom

Figure 5. Tee Yee Neen Ho Ga Row, Emperour of the Six Nations

Figure 6. Title page, 1744 Treaty of Lancaster

Figure 7. Page 3, 1744 Treaty of Lancaster

Figure 8. James Otis, Jr.

Figure 9. Patrick Henry before the Virginia House of Burgesses

Figure 10. The Bloody Massacre

Figure 11. Samuel Adams

Figure 12. The Death of General Warren

Figure 13. The Congress Voting Independence

Figure 14. George Washington in the Uniform of a British Colonial Colonel

Figure 15. George Washington, by Nel Le Mire

Figure 16. George Washington, by Gilbert Stuart

Figure 17. Fisher Ames

Figure 18. Portrait of Deborah Sampson

Abbreviations
AHRAmerican Historical ReviewJAHJournal of American HistoryNEQNew England QuarterlyPMHBPennsylvania Magazine of History and BiographyWMQWilliam and Mary Quarterly
Introduction

In the flourishing periods of Athens and Rome, eloquence was POWER.

John Quincy Adams

The Golden Age of American Oratory had already begun when John Quincy Adams described rhetorical skill as a form of power in his 1805 inaugural address as the first Boylston Chair of Rhetoric and Oratory at Harvard University. Adams observed the preeminent importance that training in oratory had for the classical civilizations of Greece and Rome and described its revived importance in the new republic, where eloquence might once again bestow power:

Under governments purely republican, where every citizen has a deep interest in the affairs of the nation, and, in some form of public assembly or other, has the means and opportunity of delivering his opinions, and of communicating his sentiments by speech; where government itself has no arms but those of persuasion; where prejudice has not acquired an uncontroled ascendency, and faction is yet confined within the barriers of peace; the voice of eloquence will not be heard in vain.

The training that Adams offered his students would set American education apart from European societies where even when they studied RHETORIC, as a theory, they neglected ORATORY, as an art. Political eloquence had not been properly valued since the death of Cicero, Adams lamented. Even after the midnight of the monkish ages gave way to the revival of letters in modern Europe, forensic and deliberative eloquence had an influence limited by the dominance of a dead language and the burden of textual precedent. Awakening from her long sleep, the muse of eloquence found her child, Persuasion, manacled and pinioned by the letter of the law and beheld an image of herself, stammering in barbarous Latin, and staggering under the lumber of a thousand volumes. Only the pulpit provided an unbounded and inexhaustible field for eloquence. With the Revolution, America freed itself from restrictive textual forms, and republican government fostered the reinvigoration of the lost art of political eloquence.

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