An Empire of Schools
An Empire of Schools
Japans Universities and the
Molding of a National
Power Elite
Robert L. Cutts
Foreword by
Chalmers Johnson
First published 1997 by M.E. Sharpe
Published 2015 by Routledge
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Copyright 1997 by Robert L. Cutts. All rights reserved.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Cutts, Robert L., 1945
An empire of schools: Japans universities and the molding of a national power elite / Robert L. Cutts: foreword by Chalmers Johnson.
p. cm.
An East Gate book.
Includes Index.
ISBN 1-56324-843-3 (alk. paper)
1. Education, HigherSocial aspectsJapanCase studies.
2. Elite (Social sciences)JapanCase studies.
3. Nationalism and educationJapanCase studies.
4. Tky Daigaku.
I. Title.
LA1318.C88 1996
378.52135dc21
96-49365
CIP
ISBN 13: 9781563248436 (hbk)
This book is dedicated to all of the Japanese people,
one of whom is my beloved wife, Eiko
and to my father, machinists mate and gunners assistant
on board the USS Dobbin, anchored just off Battleship Row on that fateful Sunday.
Contents
Most of the great controversies surrounding Japan in the United States and other English-speaking countries originate in the peculiar pretensions of American academic social science. Questions such as Who actually rules in Japan? Is Japan a democracy? and When will the Japanese and American forms of capitalism converge? are thought to be difficult only because what American theory asserts the answers ought to be clashes with ordinary reality experienced on the ground in Japan. Because the Americans tried to impose their own socioeconomic system on Japan after World War II and because, during the cold war, the two nations became military allies, American ideology insists that the older country is or is in the process of becoming a clone of the United States.
Take democracy, for example. The Japanese may tell the world they are a Western democracy, writes Robert Cutts. But this invites judgment of far more than their electoral political system. The implication is that Japanese society ought to perform like a student of America. But these judgments cant help but make hypocrites of both sides. The Japanese never asked for democracy and never said they wanted to be like anyone else at all. And the same judgments make it very hard for outsiders to understand that the real social purposes of Japans institutionsits own brand of elitism, the academic ladder that leads to it, and what it defines as democratic functionare to meet demands very, very different from those Western societies face. Insistence on hanging foreign explanations and adjectives on modern Japan like ill-fitting suits (which is something, regrettably, even Japanese spokesmen to the outer world constantly do) just makes everyone uncomfortable.
Japan needs to be taken on its own terms, not as an example or specimen of some alleged universal category. Just because Japan has political parties, civil servants, banks, labor unions, antitrust regulatorsand universitiesdoes not for a moment mean that Japan has the same institutions as other societies. Nowhere is this more true than in Japans centrally directed system of public schools and universities and its parallel, for-profit world of extracurricular academies and cram schools.
Robert Cuttss study of the University of Tokyo deals not just with the pinnacle of the Japanese educational system but, above all, with the social system of which it is a part. He stresses that Japans educational system originated from above, from the state, and not from within Japanese society, that Japans institutionalized child abuse, as he calls the years of cramming for tests to enter the university, works, in the sense that it does what its creators want it to do and the dropout rate is a fraction of that in places like the United States. The University of Tokyo does not play the same role in producing a Japanese establishment as, for example, Oxford and Cambridge do in Britain, he points out. The University of Tokyo is also not a great intellectual center nor does it house a particularly distinguished faculty. It is, instead, a gatekeeper for identifying a particular kind of talent, which the university then influences only slightly. Japans unique reliance on educational testing at every level of the system produces the worlds best quick studies in absorbing vast masses of new and unfamiliar information, whether originating in Japan or in the West, and organizing it quickly to solve problems.
Japans modern education system, dating from the Meiji era, is the key to a number of Japanese characteristics that seem contradictory to the Western mind. It produces extremely competitive people who are nonetheless devoted to cooperating with one another in most social contexts; it legitimates hierarchies among a people who are also very egalitarian in their ultimate beliefs; it is more democratic than the American educational system, in that it gives more ordinary citizens higher levels of valuable skills, but it lets down the exceptionally gifted; and it does not prepare people to question authority (as the American university bumper sticker has it) but rather to adjust to it. This book is about much more than the Japanese educational system, important as that is. It also explains why Japanese leadership has seemed paralyzed in the face of the political and economic flaws that have become apparent in postcold war Japan.
Robert Cutts is the ideal Japan hand. He does not come to his study of Todai with preconceived theoretical propositions about the functions of universities in advanced industrial democracies or of the relationship between education and democracy. His methods are empirical and inductive, not formal and deductive. He has worked in Japan for some three decades as a businessman and journalist. He wrote one of the first major analyses in English of how the Japanese construction industry is rigged to keep out foreign competition (