Paul Parsons - Science in 100 Key Breakthroughs

PAUL PARSONS

Every now and again scientists make a discovery that changes the world forever. No one wants to go back to the days of surgery without anesthesia, nights without electricity or life without a computer.

Scientific discoveries open our eyes to the dangers facing our world, such as asteroids and climate change, and supply us with the means to prevent them from causing harm. They also answer incredible questions, such as the origin of space and time, how life arose on Earth and how interactions between particles govern the behavior of matter. All of these breakthroughs hail from the genius and hard work of scientists. Some are the product of years of research. Others, such as the discovery of antibiotics or the detection of evidence for the Big Bang, happened by chance. These serendipitous discoveries act as proof of the value of blue-sky research (projects that have no pre-established goal).

This book takes a look at the 100 most important scientific discoveries that have shaped our world and given us perspective on the universe at large. The discoveries are arranged chronologically, starting with the absolute basicscountingand finishing with the creation of synthetic life in 2010.

Some of the breakthroughs you will have heard of, such as lasers, antiseptics and the discovery of ice ages. Others might be newfor example, the Navier-Stokes equations, which lie at the heart of the theory of fluid dynamics, or fullerenes, which are new kinds of carbon that have remarkable engineering properties. The greatest hits are all here, tooseminal contributions to knowledge such as relativity, quantum theory, computers and evolution.

Perhaps the greatest breakthrough of all might be the scientific method itselfthe idea of formulating theories and designing experiments to test them. It is from this simple premise, which was first set out by Iraqi scientist Ibn al-Haytham during the 11th century, that everything else followed.

Science is evolving and there will be many more discoveries to come. For example, astronomers are looking for life on extrasolar planets beyond our solar system. Knowing that the Earth is not the only place in the universe to harbor living creatures alters our perspective on life, religion and how we conduct ourselves as a society. The pace of research is such that the discovery of alien lifeif it existsmay take place within the next few decades. Other researchers are building computers that use the laws of quantum theory to carry out tasks that are impossible on the classical computers that sit on our desks today. A quantum computer could crack otherwise impenetrable codes, make lightning-fast searches and even change the way banks do business by altering the way information is handled. Theorists believe that these computers derive their power by harnessing copies of themselves running in parallel universes. Prototype quantum computers have been built in labs; working desktop machines are predicted to be only 20 years away.

Meanwhile, physicists are working to make what could be the most important breakthrough of all: the quest for a quantum theory of gravity. Einsteins general theory of relativityour best theory of gravityis incompatible with modern versions of quantum theory, the physics of tiny subatomic particles. But a quantum treatment of gravity must exist in order to describe the Big Bang in which the universe was born. Deducing the correct theory of quantum gravity will be a giant step toward wrapping up gravity with the other fundamental forces, such aselectromagnetism, and the strong and weak nuclear forcesto arrive at a theory of everything.

Of course, the most exciting future discoveries will be the ones that we cannot predict. For example, in 2010, in a Californian lake, bacteria were found that thrive on arsenica chemical that is toxic to every other known form of life. Until now, every lifeform has been based on six chemicalshydrogen, carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur and phosphorous. But in these bacteria, arsenic has taken over all the functions normally performed by phosphorous. If life on Earth can display such variety, then there is no reason why life on other worlds should resemble it in any way at all.

Some developments are predicted even if their consequences are not. Futurologist Ray Kurzweil believes this is true of artificial intelligence (computers that mimic the human capacity for decision-making and thought). He argues that once a computer can outpace human intellect it will redesign itself until the rate at which it improves tends toward the infinite. Kurzweil calls this state the singularityafter a term coined by science fiction author Vernor Vinge. What life will be like on the other side of the singularityif it existsis anyones guess. Nevertheless, Kurzweil believes it will happen before the century is out.

Thats the future, though. Although there are many breakthroughs yet to come, I think youll agree that science today is already based on some incredible accomplishments. I hope you enjoy reading about them.

PAUL PARSONS

Trading tokens, Iran, 35003100 BC. These pictorial coins were one of the earliest forms of currency. As the amount of commerce increased, trading cultures developed standardized written symbols to represent larger numbers.

DEFINITION THE DEVELOPMENT OF NUMBERS, AND THE ABILITY TO ASSIGN THEM TO PHYSICAL QUANTITIES AND RECORD THEIR VALUE

DISCOVERY EARLIEST EVIDENCE IS THE LEBOMBO BONE, MARKED WITH TALLY NOTCHES AND DATING FROM AROUND 35,000 BC

KEY BREAKTHROUGH STONE-AGE HUMANS FIGURED OUT THAT THEY COULD TRANSFER BASIC FINGER COUNTING TO INANIMATE OBJECTS

IMPORTANCE ESSENTIAL FOR TIMEKEEPING, FINANCE, EARLY MATHEMATICSAND ULTIMATELY THE WHOLE FUTURE OF SCIENCE

From adding up the number of loaves you have sold at market to computing the distribution of weight on the structure of a skyscraperlearning to count was an absolutely crucial development in the history of humanity, without which modern civilization simply could not exist. This advancement in human thinking took place at least 37,000 years ago.

Once upon a time, the full extent of human counting ability could be encapsulated in two words: one and many. At some point during the course of the Stone Age, that changed and early human beings gained the ability to accurately gauge and record large numbers.

Scientists know this due to a single artifact recovered from a cave in Africa in the 1970s. It is called the Lebombo bone, after the Lebombo Mountains between South Africa and Swaziland where it was found. The bone is a fibulaa lower leg bonefrom a baboon. That in itself was not particularly remarkable. What sparked the archaeologists interest were the 29 notches cut into the bone. These are almost certainly tally marksthe owner of the bone was keeping a count of something, though quite what isnt clear.

Archaeologist Peter Beaumont of the McGregor Museum, Kimberley, South Africa, commented that the bone is reminiscent of the calendar sticks still used by modern-day tribes in Namibia to track the passing of days. Indeed, 29 is remarkably close to the number of days in the lunar month. Whatever its specific use, many historians believe that the Lebombo bonewhich was subsequently dated to around 35,000 BCis the worlds oldest known mathematical artifact.