Danny L. Barney - Storeys Guide to Growing Organic Orchard Fruits

People have grown tree fruit crops throughout the world for thousands of years. Production systems have ranged from harvesting fruit from wild trees to sophisticated, highly managed orchards in which the fruit is harvested by robots. Within that range, each fruit grower can find a niche that is comfortable and meets his or her needs. This chapter provides insight into the evolution of farming methods, particularly as they relate to the organic production of orchard crops.

Before 1900, virtually all food was grown by what today we would call organic methods. Farms were small and often integrated crops and livestock. Labor requirements were high, and a typical farmer could feed only a small number of people. During the early 1900s, products of the industrial revolution began spilling over into agriculture. Tractors and combines reduced labor needs and made large, specialized farms possible.

The development of modern agriculture accelerated after World War I as new technology was transferred from military to civilian use. Synthetic, petroleum-based nitrogen fertilizers were discovered in the 1800s, but the production methods used for munitions explosives made large-scale manufacture of synthetic fertilizers feasible and profitable. Research on chemical weapons helped in the development of synthetic pesticides. Advances in plant breeding led to the creation of high-yielding hybrid crops that flourished in heavily fertilized monocultures.

In 1945, the Mexican government began research and educational programs directed at becoming self-sufficient in food production in the face of a rapidly growing population. These efforts, funded largely by U.S. philanthropic organizations, were highly successful. Within 11 years, Mexico was self-sufficient in wheat production; 8 years later they were a significant wheat exporter. Government and agricultural industry policies and goals emphasized developing hybrid crop varieties, synthetic pesticides, and fertilizers, and increasing mechanization. These practices rapidly spread around the world, fueling what came to be called the green revolution.

Many people benefited from the green revolution, particularly those in less developed countries, where populations were rising rapidly and hunger was all too common. In developed countries, modern agricultural practices spurred enormous economic growth. With fewer farmers and farm workers required to feed the population, people were able to pursue education, vocational training, and business opportunities. Huge agribusinesses and food companies thrived, spurring more employment and wealth.

A few voices of warning could be heard, however, against the onrush of agricultural development. In the early 1900s, soil scientist Franklin H. King emphasized the impacts of soil chemistry on fertility and crop yields and wrote about traditional Oriental farming practices that had produced sustainable crops for millennia. From 1909 to 1924, Sir Albert Howard (sometimes called the father of organic farming) served as a British agricultural advisor in India. Although he went to India to teach modern agricultural methods, he came to appreciate and improve upon traditional Indian agricultural practices, such as composting. His 1940 book, An Agricultural Testament, served as an early organic agricultural text.

In the 1920s, Austrian-born philosopher Rudolf Steiner began teaching an integrated approach to farming that came to be called biodynamic agriculture. His approach emphasized the integration and harmony among soils, crops, and animals. Steiners recommended practices included the use of composts, manures, and herbal preparations, with the goal of creating farms that were holistic, self-nourishing organisms. Today we refer to such practices as system or ecological approaches, and they are at the forefront of organic research.

Building on Sir Alberts teachings, Lady Eve Balfour began the Haughley Experiment in England in 1939 to test the claims of organic farming advocates and fill in the gaps in knowledge of how such systems worked. This remarkably well-designed ecological experiment was conducted on farm-scale plantings. The experiments included three side-by-side sections of land, each large enough to operate a full farm rotation. The study examined the food chains involved on a farm soil, plant, animal, and back to the soil through many crop successions and generations of plants and animals. The goal, according to Lady Balfour, was to determine interdependences between soil, plant and animal, and also any cumulative effects could manifest. Lady Balfour described her work in the book The Living Soil, which helped lead to the formation of the organic advocacy group The Soil Association in the United Kingdom.

Japanese microbiologist and plant pathologist Masanobu Fukuoka turned from scientific agriculture to natural farming, which he considered went one step further than organic practices. Growing cover crops, mulching with native vegetation, not using tillage, and integrating crops and livestock were among his recommended practices. His books One Straw Revolution (1978) and The Natural Way of Farming (1985) are classic texts in the organic movement.

In the United States, J. I. Rodale became convinced of the truth and importance of the work done by Sir Albert and Lady Balfour and began publishing Organic Farming and Gardening magazine. In 1947, the Soil and Health Foundation was established and became the forerunner to the Rodale Institute. Among other things, Rodale emphasized building natural soil fertility after nitrogen fertilizers became unavailable during World War II, when ammonium supplies were diverted from agriculture to munitions.