Sverdrup - The Mongol conquests : the military operations of Genghis Khan and Sübe’etei

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Published by Helion & Company 2017

Designed and typeset by Serena Jones

Cover designed by Paul Hewitt, Battlefield Design ( http://www.battlefield-design.co.uk )

Text Carl Fredrik Sverdrup 2016

Maps drawn by George Anderson Helion & Company 2016

Cover: Defeat of the Iranians at the Battle of Ladan. Book of Kings (per 114, f. 38a), Chester Beatty Library

(Dublin)

Every reasonable effort has been made to trace copyright holders and to obtain their permission for the use of copyright material. The author and publisher apologize for any errors or omissions in this work, and would be grateful if notified of any corrections that should be incorporated in future reprints or editions of this book.

ISBN 978-1-910777-71-8

eISBN 978-1-913118-22-8

Mobi ISBN 978-1-913118-22-8

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A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

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1. The operations of 1191 and 1194

2. The operations against the Tatars in 1196

3. Various events from 1196 to 1199

4. The attacks on the Naimans in 1199 (first part), 1206, and 1208

5. The second part of the 1199 campaign

6. The operations against Tayiciut in 1200

7. The operations in East Mongolia 1201 and 1202

8. The Kyiten campaign in 12021203

9. The confrontation with Tooril in 1203

10. The defeat of the Naimans in 12041205

11. The invasion of Xia in 12091210

12. The first attack on the Jin in 12111212

13. The continued operations against the Jin in 1212 and 12131214

14. The first campaigns in the Western region 12161220

15. The advance to the Sindhu River 1221

16. Circling the Caspian Sea I, 12201222

17. Circling the Caspian Sea II, 12221224

18. The final confrontation with Xia 12261228

19. The operations in central China 12301231

20. The assault on Song Hanzhong 12311232

21. The Sanfeng campaign 1232

22. The final operations against Jin 12321234

23. The Song attempt to recover Kaifeng and Luoyang in 1234

24. The conquest of the Volga Bulgars, Rus, Kipchaks, and other tribes 12361240

25. The invasion of Central Europe 1241

My study of the Mongols and their military operations has over the years gone through several stages. I started reading Western, mainly English, books on the subject. Dupuy & Dupuys Encyclopaedia of Military History provided the first introduction. In their overview of the history of warfare from 3,500 BC to the present, they included a substantial section on the Mongols. They ranked Genghis Khan as one of 12 Great Captains of military history and lauded the Mongols for their military brilliance. The books of Liddell Hart, Harold Lamb, Michael Prawdin, James Chambers, Leo de Hartog, and Stephen Turnbull added to this beginning. With this base, the next level of my Mongol journey was to understand the sources these authors had relied on. Most European and Near Eastern primary sources are readily available in English, German, or French and so is the Mongolian Secret History. The Chinese sources, notably the dynastic histories, presented a bigger challenge. De Mailla (1730), Gaubil (1739), and de Harlez (1887) made translations of the dynastic histories long ago. These are, however, condensed accounts and the translations of titles and names are often difficult to follow. Further, the translations are not supplemented with extensive commentary as is now standard in such works. Some limited parts of the Yuanshi and the first part of Shengwujinzhenglu have been properly translated. However, with these few exceptions, the rest of the Chinese source material is unavailable to Western readers. The task in the third and final stage of my Mongol research was to work my way through the raw Chinese dynastic histories with the help of Abel Yu, an experienced Chinese translator. Supplemented by the scholarly articles as well as Desmond Martins book The Rise of Chingis Khan And His Conquest Of North China , I was able to develop a better understanding of the Mongol military campaigns.

My Mongol studies were driven by a desire to know what really happened. It was only afterwards that I considered using the research for other purposes. I have published two articles on the Mongols in academic journals. The first looked at the numbers of the Mongol armies at different times, while the second, at the recommendation of Igor de Rachewiltz, dealt with Sbeetei. This book is a more ambitious step, a full military history of the Mongols.

The eminent Norman Baynes wrote an article called The Military Operations of the Emperor Heraclios more than a century ago. I read this wanting to understand how Heraclios operated against the Sasanians from 622 to 628. The article was a brilliant start for the subject, even if the reconstruction of the campaigns I now consider correct is very different from the version of Baynes. The format and approach of his study was, however, very good and hoping to match his spirit I have given the book the subtitle The Military Operations of Genghis Khan and Sbeetei. A specialised or selective study can look at the subject in depth, avoiding areas where the sources are weak. A broader narrative can avoid difficult areas by being vague. I have made a broad-based narrative without shying away from details. To construct a narrative, much guesswork and assumptions are needed at times. Hopefully, I explain the assumptions well and leave the ground open for others to improve on the narrative. Our understanding of the Mongol military campaigns is certain to improve with time. Hopefully this reconstruction, like that of Baynes for Heraclios, can contribute positively to this process. As rendered by the 36 Stratagems, I toss out a brick to attract the jade.

I would like to thank publisher Duncan Rogers, editor Serena Jones, and map maker George Anderson for helping transform my script and drafts into this book.

Seven hundred years ago a man almost conquered the earth. He made himself master of half the known world, and inspired mankind with a fear that lasted for generations.

Harold Lamb

Napoleon associated great military achievement closely with individual military genius, saying:

The Gauls were not conquered by the Roman legions, but by Caesar. It was not before the Carthaginian soldiers that Rome was made to tremble, but before Hannibal. It was not the Macedonian phalanx which reached India, but Alexander. It was not the French army that reached Weser and the Inn; it was Turenne. Prussia was not defended for seven years against the three most formidable European powers by the Prussian soldiers but by Frederick the Great.