Theresa A. Hammond - A White-Collar Profession: African American Certified Public Accountants since 1921
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Among the major professions, certified public accountancy has the most severe underrepresentation of African Americans: less than 1 percent of CPAs are black. Theresa Hammond explores the history behind this statistic and chronicles the courage and determination of African Americans who sought to enter the field. In the process, she expands our understanding of the links between race, education, and economics.
Drawing on interviews with pioneering black CPAs, among other sources, Hammond sets the stories of black CPAs against the backdrop of the rise of accountancy as a profession, the particular challenges that African Americans trying to enter the field faced, and the strategies that enabled some blacks to become CPAs. Prior to the 1960s, few white-owned accounting firms employed African Americans. Only through nationwide networks established by the first black CPAs did more African Americans gain the requisite professional experience. The civil rights era saw some progress in integrating the field, and black colleges responded by expanding their programs in business and accounting. In the 1980s, however, the backlash against affirmative action heralded the decline of African American participation in accountancy and paved the way for the astonishing lack of diversity that characterizes the field today.
Drawing on interviews with pioneering black CPAs, among other sources, Hammond sets the stories of black CPAs against the backdrop of the rise of accountancy as a profession, the particular challenges that African Americans trying to enter the field faced, and the strategies that enabled some blacks to become CPAs. Prior to the 1960s, few white-owned accounting firms employed African Americans. Only through nationwide networks established by the first black CPAs did more African Americans gain the requisite professional experience. The civil rights era saw some progress in integrating the field, and black colleges responded by expanding their programs in business and accounting. In the 1980s, however, the backlash against affirmative action heralded the decline of African American participation in accountancy and paved the way for the astonishing lack of diversity that characterizes the field today.
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A White-Collar Profession
2002 The University of North Carolina Press
All rights reserved
Manufactured in the United States of America
Designed by Heidi Perov
Set in Minion and MetaPlus
by Keystone Typesetting, Inc.
The paper in this book meets the guidelines for permanence and durability of the Committee on Production Guidelines for Book Longevity of the Council on Library Resources.
Portions of this book have been reprinted with permission from the Proceedings of the council meetings and annual meetings of the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants, Inc.,
copyright 1941, 1942, 1965, and 1969.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Hammond, Theresa A.
A white-collar profession: African American certified public accountants since 1921 / Theresa A. Hammond.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-8078-2708-8 (cloth: alk. paper)
ISBN 0-8078-5377-1 (pbk.: alk. paper)
1. AccountingUnited StatesHistory20th century.
2. African American accountantsBiography. I. Title.
HF5616.U5.H27 2002
331.6'396073dc21 2001057010
cloth 06 05 04 03 02 5 4 3 2 1
paper 06 05 04 03 02 5 4 3 2 1
In grateful memory of
Richard Austin, CPA
Charles Beckett, CPA
Lincoln Harrison, CPA
Theodore Jones, CPA
Theodora Rutherford, CPA
Elmer Whiting, CPA
Charles Beckett, CPA
Lincoln Harrison, CPA
Theodore Jones, CPA
Theodora Rutherford, CPA
Elmer Whiting, CPA
Contents
Illustrations, Figures, and Table
ILLUSTRATIONS
John W. Cromwell Jr.
Jesse B. Blayton
Mary Washington
Bert Mitchell
Six of the nine NABA founders
Henry Wilfong with Richard M. Nixon
Ruth Harris
Founders of Banks, Finley, Thomas and White
Certified Public Accountant certificate
NABA presentation at California State University at Long Beach
First meeting of the African American Accounting Doctoral Student Association
FIGURES
African American Professionals in Majority-Owned CPA Firms, 19771989
Minority Representation in Major Public Accounting Firms, 19771989
TABLE
African American Representation in Three Professions, 1930, 1960, 1997
Acknowledgments
This book would not have been possible without the generosity of pioneering African American CPAs who sat down and talked about their experiences with a total stranger. Several of them are now deceased, and this book is dedicated to their memory: Richard H. Austin, Michigan CPA 1941; Charles A. Beckett, Illinois CPA 1941; Lincoln J. Harrison, Louisiana CPA 1946; Theodore A. Jones, Illinois CPA 1940; Theodora F. Rutherford, West Virginia CPA 1960; and Elmer J. Whiting Jr., Ohio CPA 1950.
Talmadge Tillman Jr. met me at the airport, introduced me to everyone I interviewed in Los Angeles, and knew where to find every relevant document or article. He is a researcher's dream, and he became a dear friend. Bert Mitchell, who wrote a pioneering study of black CPAs in 1968, has been a source of encouragement and knowledge since I met him in 1989, while I was working on my dissertation.
Denise Streeter identified the first 100 African American CPAs in a study for the National Association of Black Accountants in 1990. She shared her findings with me and paved the way for this work. Sian Hunter at the University of North Carolina Press has been a wonderful supporter and adviser throughout this process. My sister Ruth E. Hammond used her writing expertise to improve every chapter. Boston College and Ernst & Young provided financial support, while my colleagues at Boston College provided moral support and were unfailingly helpful despite my nontraditional choice of research field. Paul Breines, Andy Buni, Maureen Chancey, Jeff Cohen, Gil Manzon, Jack Neuhauser, Kevin Newmark, Ron Pawliczek, Andrea Roberts, Ken Schwartz, Greg Trompeter, and Diane Vaughan all earned my gratitude.
Other people who provided comments and encouragement include Jane Ashley, Ida Robinson Backmon and her students at North Carolina A&T State University, Edder Bennett, Elizabeth Chambliss, Michael Clement, Christine Cooper, Pamela Davis, Cindy Desch, Carol Donelan, Anne Fleche, Finley Graves, Chris Hall, Pat Hammond, Jim Hayes, Mary Iber, Gregory Johnson, Cheryl Lehman, Paul Miranti, Dan Mont, Richard Newman, Lucius Outlaw, Glenn Perkins, Gary Previts, Shannon Spahr, Arlene Stein, David Thomas, Cynthia Williams Turner, Paula Wald, Juliet Walker, David Wilkins, and the Reading Group on the Professions at Harvard Law School.
My research assistants, Juan Concepcion, Anna Diaz, Monique McNeil, Andrea Orr, and Jackie Taylor, went beyond the call of duty to track down obscure articles and to compile data. The librarians at Boston College have been exceptionally helpful, especially the interlibrary loan staff. At other libraries it seems that I was always asking questions until five minutes before closing, yet the librarians at the American Institute of CPAs, Atlanta University, Boston University, Columbia University, Howard University, the University of Illinois, Jackson State University, the New York Public Library's Schom-burg Center for Research in Black Culture, the Auburn Avenue Research Library on African-American Culture and History, and North Carolina A&T State University were consistently patient.
Finally, two basketball players made me feel like this was a team project. Since 1991, when I conducted my first interview for the book, my BC colleague Betty Bagnani has shared my excitement. We must have walked a thousand miles while discussing what to do with the material I was gathering. I could slip a copy of my latest chapter under her door at 10 P.M., and invariably she would have comments by 10 A.M. the next day. Cal Bouchard joined the team near the end of the project, but she beat Betty's turnaround time, providing faxed comments from training camp within hours. She meticulously edited the footnotes and bibliography and remained cheerful and enthusiastic throughout a phenomenally tedious job. I don't know what I would do without either one of them.
I made every effort to honestly represent the experiences of the African Americans who shared their stories with me. We shared the same objective: as Theodora Rutherford put it, she was happy to participate for the cause. The contributions of many, many people made this book possible, but any remaining errors, omissions, and misinterpretations are my own.
A White-Collar Profession
1 The Whitest Profession
When Theodora Fonteneau Rutherford graduated summa cum laude from Howard University in 1923, she dreamed of becoming a certified public accountant (CPA). Her favorite accounting professor had encouraged the talented nineteen-year-old to strive for the pinnacle of the accounting profession, providing her with questions from prior CPA examinations to help her prepare. She earned a scholarship to Columbia University's graduate school of business, and she hoped that New York would provide opportunities that had been unavailable in the southern states in which she had been raised. Although she was bright, well-educated, hardworking, and determined, Rutherford was prevented from achieving her goal for the next thirty-seven years. When she finally became a CPA in 1960, she was one of only a few dozen African American CPAs in the entire country.
This book chronicles the stories of several of the pioneering African American men and women who managed to surmount the obstacles to becoming a CPA and whose history has been all but ignored. Their experiences paralleled those of African Americans who pursued other professions in the twentieth century. Segregated educational institutions posed challenges to acquiring the requisite expertise; white employers, whether hospitals, law firms, or CPA firms, were reluctant to hire African Americans; clientele were limited to the economically disadvantaged African American community; and professional societies held meetings in segregated hotels or excluded African Americans outright. The stories of these individuals provide a new and important perspective on the history of the professions, the perspective of those who fought to join elite occupations in which they were not welcome.
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