Adda B Bozeman - Politics and Culture in International History: From the Ancient Near East to the Opening of the Modern Age

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Politics and Culture in International History

Politics and Culture in International History

From the Ancient Near East to the Opening of the Modern Age

Second Edition

Adda B. Bozeman

With a new introduction by the author

Originally published in 1960 by Princeton University Press

Published 1994 by Transaction Publishers

Published 2017 by Routledge

2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN

711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017, USA

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

New material this edition copyright 1994 by Taylor & Francis.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.

Notice:

Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.

Library of Congress Catalog Number: 94-8483

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Bozeman, Adda B. (Adda Bruemmer), 1908-

Politics and culture in international history : from the ancient Near East to the opening of the modern age : with a new introduction by the author / Adda B. Bozeman.2nd ed.

p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 1-56000-735-4

1. International relationsHistory. 2. International relations and cultureHistory. 3. World politics1989-. I. Title.

JX1305.B65 1994

327'.092dc20

94-8483
CIP

ISBN 13: 978-1-5600-0735-7 (pbk)

TO ANYA BOZEMAN

Acknowledgements

Work on the present volume was begun with the aid of a grant from the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace and a research fellowship from Sarah Lawrence College. It was greatly furthered through contacts with the students at the College, who gave me the opportunity to test the material selected for inclusion in this book. The staffs of various libraries, especially Mrs. Elisabeth Seely of Sarah Lawrence College, were helpful in arranging for inter-library loans.

A number of friends and authorities have very kindly read chapters and offered detailed criticisms that considerably altered and improved my original intentions, and I wish to acknowledge their kindnesses with profound thanks; notably, Drs. Mary and Arthur F. Wright through whose suggestions many new insights were contributed to the section dealing with China and Indo-Chinese relations; Sir Hamilton A. R. Gibb, who read the chapter on the Islamic realm; and Dr. H. H. Fisher, whose inspiration and moral support gave me the courage to undertake this enterprise and who then gave particular attention to my chapter on Byzantium. Dr. Philip C. Jessup read a good half of the manuscript and sent me several pages of notes. My thanks go also to Dr. Helen McMaster for her reading and discussion of a number of chapters and to Dr. Arne Barkhuus, who went through a large portion of the galleys. Special gratitude is due to Mr. Joseph Campbell, who read the whole manuscript, made numerous editorial suggestions and, for the Indian chapter, supplied valuable bibliographical advice.

A.B. B.

Contents

PART I
THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST AND INDIA

(1) The Development of an International Language and its Unifying Effects

(2) The Impact of Trade on the Near Eastern States System

(3) Summary

(1) The Foundations of the Persian World State

(2) Principle and Expediency in Persias Imperial Policy

(3) The Administration of the Persian State

(4) Persias Relations with Other States and International Societies

(1) Retention of the City-State as an Independent Unit

(2) PanhellenismVoluntary and Enforced

PART II
THE IMPERIAL SYSTEMS OF CHINA AND ROME

PART III
CHRISTIANITY AND ISLAM

(1) The Papacy

(2) The Canon Law and its Relation to a Law of Nations: the Problem of Peace

(1) The Distinction between Private and Public War

(2) The Crusades as an Instrument of Foreign Policy

PART IV
INTERNATIONAL HISTORY AND THE WORLD SOCIETY TODAY: A RECONSIDERATION OF REALITIES AND MYTHS

Politics and Culture at the Threshold of the Twenty-First Century

I. In Which Ways has the World Environment for the Conduct of International Relations Changed in the Last Half Century?

II. Which New Orientations to the Study of International Relations are Necessary Now if the Academic Universe of Learning is to do Justice to the Political and Cultural Realities of the Coming Century?

I

AN ASSESSMENT of world politics in the last half century supports the following findings. The interplay (the dual play?) of politics and culture has intensified throughout the world, and that on the plane of international relations as well as on that of intrastate social existence and governance. Interactions between polities and cultures are more confounded and conflicted than they had been earlier, and trust in the validity and efficacy of governmental public order systems as these had been installed between 1920 and 1950 under Western auspices has subsided dramatically. Todays world assemblage of states is thus held together not by substantive accords on norms, purposes, and values but by loose agreements on the use of forms, techniques, and words.

These changes are noted or forecast in the 1960 introduction, and most are discussed in the following chapters, at least in their initial phases. The present summary assessment will therefore focus on their different yet interlocking causes and on their ultimate effects as these have been recorded between the 1950s and 1990s in the non-Western, the Leninist, and the Western orbits of the world society.

1. The Non-Western Orbit

Westernization has spent itself in all newly independent non-Western statesparticularly in Africa, the Islamic Middle East, and the Central American/Caribbean region. In this sector of the vast non-Western orbit in which government has traditionally been an outgrowth of religion, Europeanized elites faced several particular predicaments. In each of the regions here discussed, they had started out on the margins of two highly disparate cultures: they could not belong to the foreign civilization that attracted them intellectually, and they were no longer comfortable in their own traditional society where they were a small minority alienated from the majority. This type of ambivalence had probably not been seriously unsettling in pre-independence times when the new culturally split elites assumed the frustrating dual mandate to govern new, culturally confused states in accordance with the Occidental norms upon whose introduction they had originally insisted.

From the mid-twentieth century onwards however it was clearly apparent that such a task could not be executed satisfactorily. The first generation of Westernized rulers was thus unable to Westernize the beliefs, expectations and behavioral dispositions of those it ruled. Nor could its members tamper with the traditional life-sustaining creeds in which all individual and collective identitites in the nationincluding their own and those of their forbearshad been firmly imbedded from time immemorial. Frustration on a large scale settled in their midst, and doubt about the worth of European precepts and models spread. Unrelieved by self-criticism, or other analytical reflections, these sentiments soon grew into suspicion and resentment until the West as a whole was being imagined in many circles as a false prophet or a mischievous sorcerer who had led his apprentices astray deliberatelya persuasion assiduously propagated at that time by Marxism-Leninism.

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