About the Authors
Thanks to their scientific backgrounds, Patricia Barnes-Svarney and Thomas E. Svarney have had much more than a passing acquaintance with mathematics. Barnes-Svarney has been a nonfiction science and fiction writer for more than two decades. She has degrees in geology and geography, and once aspired to be a mathematician. She turned to science writing and has penned hundreds of magazine articles, along with more than thirty books, including the award-winning The New York Public Library Science Desk Reference and When the Earth Moves: Rogue Earthquakes, Tremors, and Aftershocks for adults, an international best-selling childrens book, and the popular womens health/humor book Why Do Women Crave More Sex in the Summer? 112 Questions That Women Keep Askingand That Keep Everyone Else Guessing.
Thomas E. Svarney has an extensive background in the sciences, and has, with Barnes-Svarney, written about the natural world, including such books as Skies of Fury: Weather Weirdness around the World and The Oryx Guide to Natural History. Barnes-Svarney and Svarney have also written several books for The Handy Answer series, including The Handy Dinosaur Answer Book. They currently reside in the Finger Lakes region of upstate New York, tending their organic garlic and herb farm, and taking care of their cats, Fluffernutter, Worf, and Pabu. You can find out more about their writingand farmingat www.pattybarnes.net.
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THE HANDY MATH ANSWER BOOK
2nd Edition
Copyright 2012 by Visible Ink Press
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Managing Editor: Kevin S. Hile
Art Director: Mary Claire Krzewinski
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Proofreaders: Chrystal Rosza and Sarah Hermsen
Indexing: Larry Baker
ISBN 978-1-57859-373-6
Cover images: Shutterstock.com.
Cataloging-in-Publication Data is on file at the Library of Congress.
Printed in the United States of America
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Contents
What Is Mathematics? Early Counting and Numbers Mesopotamian Numbers and Mathematics Egyptian Numbers and Mathematics Greek and Roman Mathematics Other Cultures and Early Mathematics . Mathematics after the Middle Ages . Into Modern Mathematics
The Creation of Zero and Pi Development of Weights and Measures . Time and Math in History . Math and Calendars in History
Basic Arithmetic . All about Numbers . More about Numbers, The Concept of Zero Basic Mathematical Operations Fractions
Foundations and Logic Mathematical and Formal Logic Axiomatic System Set Theory
The Basics of Algebra Algebra Explained Algebraic Operations Exponents and Logarithms Polynomial Equations More Algebra Abstract Algebra
Geometry Beginnings Basics of Geometry Plane Geometry Solid Geometry Measurements and Transformations Analytic Geometry Trigonometry Other Geometries
Analysis Basics Sequences and Series Calculus Basics Differential Calculus Integral Calculus Differential Equations Vector and Other Analyses
Applied Mathematics Basics Probability Theory Statistics Modeling and Simulation Other Areas of Applied Mathematics
Physics and Mathematics Classical Physics and Mathematics Modern Physics and Mathematics Chemistry and Math Astronomy and Math
Math in Geology Math in Meteorology Math in Biology Math and the Environment
Basics of Engineering Civil Engineering and Mathematics Mathematics and Architecture Electrical Engineering and Materials Science Chemical Engineering Industrial and Aeronautical Engineering
Early Counting and Calculating Devices Mechanical and Electronic Calculating Devices Modern Computers and Mathematics Applications
Numbers and Math in Everyday Life Math and the Outdoors Math, Numbers, and the Body Math and the Consumers Money Math and Traveling
Math Puzzles Mathematical Games Card and Dice Games Sports Numbers Just for Fun
Educational Resources Organizations and Societies Museums Popular Resources Surfing the Internet
Introduction
It never occurred to us that mathematics would change so much in just over a half decade. We found that mathematical research continually metamorphoses not only scientifically, but socially, economically, and even emotionally. Such changes have become a necessity in our globally challenged and connected world. Just to write this book for you, many people along the way had to know about mathematicsto code a program to write, edit, and space our words forand even mathematical codes so we can type mathematics without misspelling it!