North - A History of the Popes: Volume I: Origins to the Middle Ages

Origins of the Papacy: St. Peter to St. Clement
(ca. 33 ca. 101) .....

The office of bishop of Rome, is one of the most powerful positions in the world. As an ancient institution stretching back for centuries, the papacy has a history that is marked by archaic and modern customs alike. The history of the men who have held this position is fraught with villainous and heroic actions that have left a profound impact on the development of civilization as we know it, both in the West and East. The popes led the early Church through persecution, acquired temporal power through the actions of Constantine, oversaw the universal Church in the early middle ages, were steeped in various scandals in the late middle ages, saw their secular power stripped in the modern period, and were instrumental in the rise and fall of various kingdoms and nations.

Adding to the mystique of the papacy is the claim that the pope has a special charism called infallibility, meaning that when he teaches in his office as the successor of Peter on matters of faith or morals, he cannot err. How can such a claim be made seriously, especially in todays world where scientific rationalism pervades the mentality of modern men and women? The answer to this question goes back to Scripture. The Catholic Church interpreted several Scripture passages in the Gospel, in particular Matthew 16:16-19, as containing in seed form the doctrine of papal infallibility. At the First Vatican Council the bishops declared, For the Holy Spirit was not promised to the successors of Peter that they might disclose a new doctrine by his revelation, but rather that, with his assistance, they might reverently guard and faithfully explain the revelation or deposit of faith that was handed down through the apostles (Denzinger, 3070).

Jesus declared to Peter, [Y]ou are Peter, and upon this rock I will build my church, and the gates of the netherworld shall not prevail against it. I will give you the keys to the kingdom of heaven. Whatever you bind on earth shall be bound in heaven; and whatever you loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven (Matthew 16:1819, New American Bible, Revised Edition). At the same time, Peter denied Jesus three times ( Matthew 26:6975 ). How was Peter, a weak man, ever to hope to have the strength to lead Jesus followers? How can this prophecy be applicable to all of the successors of Peter throughout history when there were some popes who were downright evil? Cardinal Ratzinger, who later became Pope Benedict XVI, offered the following explanation: The men in question are so glaringly, so blatantly unequal to this function that the very empowerment of man to be the rock makes evident how little it is they who sustain the Church but God alone who does so, who does so more in spite of men than through them (Ratzinger, 73). God uses weak instruments to accomplish his tasks; this is the best answer there is. Taken as a whole, the history of the popes is more sad and tragic than it is glorious. Seen from the perspective of the Catholic Churchs endurance, regardless of the frightening waves that have pounded its bark, it is truly miraculous that the papacy has withstood the test of time and has lasted for millennia, whereas other nations, kingdoms, and institutions inevitably erode with time.

This present volume begins with a historical sketch of Peter and the role he played in the early Church. It is apparent from the New Testament that Peter enjoyed some kind of primacy over the other apostles and that Jesus intention was not to set up Peter as a rock, since Peter himself could never endure for generations, but as an institution with power and authority, hence the ability to bind and to loose (Matthew 16:19). Of course, this same power was given to the rest of the apostles as well (Matthew 18:18), but it was first promised to Peter, to whom Jesus gave the charge of strengthening his brothers (Luke 22:32).

This work, which is conceived as a three volume history of the popes, is not intended to be a theological treatise on papal primacy or infallibility, nor is it a look at the lives of the popes as though it were a collection of miniature biographical sketches; instead, it is intended to be a history of the popes. It is concerned with the pontificates of the individual popes and how their pontificates shaped the papacy, the Catholic Church and the world. For this purpose, each chapter is divided into a historical epoch, a period of history spanning from a decade to a century. Within these spaces of time, the most significant actions of the popes will be described and their impact assessed.

I follow Richard McBriens dates for the beginnings of each pontificate, which differs slightly from the official dates. The official dates in the Vatican lists do not consider the theological question of whether an elected pope who was not a consecrated bishop, can be considered pope, since by definition the pope is the bishop of Rome. The official lists seem to ignore this fact, whereas McBrien carefully takes into consideration the date of a papal candidates episcopal ordination.

Because this work is going to cover two millennia of history, I will divide it into three volumes. The first volume will cover roughly the first nine hundred years of papal history up to the pontificate of Leo V. The second volume will cover the pontificates from the infamous Sergius III to Leo X. Finally, the third volume will cover the popes of the late renaissance period to the modern era, which spans from the pontificate of Adrian VI to that of Francis. The rationale for this division is that more is known about recent popes than the early popes, so it makes sense to devote one volume to the popes in the first nine hundred years. The division between the second and third volumes coincides with the dawn of the Protestant Reformation. Leo X was pope during 1517, when Martin Luther nailed his Ninety-five Theses on the doors of the church at Wittenberg, Germany. The Catholic Churchs response to Protestantism and their own Counter Reformation are a major theme of the third volume.

Despite the vast scope of this project, the relatively small size of the three volumes, a little over sixty thousand words in total, means that on average, I can only devote thirty words per year of history. For this reason, I will have to paint with rather broad strokes in such a way as to give a complete picture without dwelling on too many particular details. Hopefully, the reader will get a sense of the remarkable image of the history of the popes with all of its shade and light, scandals and wonders, failures and achievements.