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Jim Chi Yung - Greening cities: forms and functions

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Book:
Greening cities: forms and functions
Author:
Jim Chi Yung / Tan Puay Yok
Publisher:
Springer Nature.;
Genre:
Books / Romance novel
Year:
2017
City:
Singapore
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Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2017

Puay Yok Tan and Chi Yung Jim (eds.) Greening Cities Advances in 21st Century Human Settlements 10.1007/978-981-10-4113-6_1

1. Introduction to Green City Idea and Ideal

Chi Yung Jim 1

(1)

University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong

(2)

National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore

Chi Yung Jim (Corresponding author)

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Puay Yok Tan

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1.1 The Green City Imperative

To different people, the idea of green city can conjure up a plethora of connotations and imaginations. They represent a spectrum of human responses to the form and substance of nature embedded in and enveloping cities. Some laypersons may consider urban parks or urban green spaces in general as venues for outdoor recreational pursuits in the company of some vegetative elements. Some would be attracted by the ornamental or decorative traits providing visual divergence from the preponderant artificial structures and surfaces of the built environment. Others may go beyond the skin-deep response to explore, appreciate and relish the diverse and high-order ecosystem services.

The favourite type of greenery preferred by citizens could vary greatly. It covers bequests from the pre-urbanization era with rich natural contents such as remnant enclaves of woodlands that have been conserved by default or by design in cities. They denote urban green spaces with the most complex ecosystem diversities, structures and functions. In the eyes of the beholders, the wild forest landscape could be earnestly preferred. However, it could be feared and shunned by some citizens who may opt for neatly manicured parks with nature presented formally and orderly on human terms. At the other end of the spectrum, it could be highly regimented vegetation composed of common horticultural species planted in urban parks or at roadsides.

The innate urge to get close to greenery and water, probably deeply etched in the human psyche, may drive the desire to preserve and rear them. When our ancestors invented the institution of town and city, the escape from the vagaries of unforgiving and capricious nature would be considered a pleasant blessing or even good riddance and good fortune. As cities grew bigger and denser, the harshness induced by nature deficit began to be keenly felt and forlornly lamented. As the connection with nature became more tenuous in cities, the desire to restore nature began to grow stronger. Humans have followed circuitously and clumsily a circular route in our relationship with nature, from depending on nature to escaping from or even excluding nature, and then reverting to embracing and treasuring nature.

The development of ecological science and its increasing application to the urban sphere has enriched our knowledge base regarding the multiple and pertinent benefits. We have learnt the intricate ins and outs, and arts and sciences of urban green space design, use, management and conservation. Many cities have emerged from the fuzzy understanding of greening benefits in the past to awakening and enlightenment. The broader and deeper appreciation of ecosystem services has nurtured, mobilized and reinforced a latent force to transform the traditional mode of city development. In the course of urban planning, the hitherto often side-lined green infrastructure has been increasingly mainstreamed and considered in tandem with the grey infrastructure and other hardware paraphernalia of cities.

The benefits brought by the urban green infrastructure have been focused traditionally on the environmental and then ecological aspects which form the basis to generate and sustain other services. In recent years, attention has been extended to the social and economic dimensions, and deeper exploration of ecological ingredients and contributions. The research findings have been gradually translated and transferred to the policy and practice provinces. Meanwhile, researchers have continued to move into new directions to expand the knowledge frontier. The following paragraphs summarize the key growth hotspots in recent years related to the city greening theme.

1.1.1 Spatial-Ecological Planning of Urban Green Space

From the establishment of individual green space sites per se to the city-scale spatial-ecological planning especially with reference to sustainability and liveability issues (Caspersen and Olafsson ).
From non-spatial and non-ecological planning of urban green space to firm grasp and application of mainstream ecological, urban-ecological, and landscape-ecological principles.
From isolated green patches to connectivity with the help of stepping stones and habitat corridors, and permeating ecological network of greenways and blueways (Ignatieva et al. ).
From casual or chance inheritance of natural enclaves by default to well-planned conservation of high-calibre remnant nature by design, as well as creation of complex natural ecosystems at green or brown fields.
From an emphasis on vegetation to seamless integration with water features to form the green-cum-blue infrastructure with applications in stormwater management in terms of both quantity and quality (District of Columbia ).
From landscape planting to urban farming and allotment and community gardening realms that can fuse natural with productive and amenity functions.
From the emphasis on formal green space to increasing awareness and attention to informal urban natural areas.
From ground-level greening to elevated skyrise greening expressed as green roofs, green walls and sky terraces.
From single organism, factor or process to the integrated ecosystem approach adopting the multidisciplinary perspective.
From simplistic off-site habitat compensation or offset to full re-creation of ecological components, interactions and processes (Qutier and Lavorel ).
From urban densification dominated by the grey infrastructure to embracing the green imperative in a co-ordinated manner under a nature-friendly planning and development regime (Jim and Chan ).
From the redevelopment of old districts without improvement in green space provision to visionary allocation of adequate land for high-quality green sites with the help of development right transfer.
From little attention to soil coverage in cities to increasing studies on the role of permeable land surface in urban vegetation performance and as a surrogate indicator of environmental quality (Artmann and Breuste ).
From piecemeal transfer of research findings to the comprehensive and integrated knowledge exchange in the package of nature-based solutions (European Commission ).

1.1.2 Design and Management of Urban Greenery

From the traditional horticultural-landscape design to the innovative ecological-naturalistic alternative aiming at emulating the local or regional ecology (Jim and Chen ).
From routine provision of limited species richness to meticulous design to plant and attract more species to achieve high biodiversity (Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity ).
From ingrained preference for domination by a common cohort of exotic species to cultivating and accommodating native flora and fauna.
From realizing the individual benefits of urban green space to the holistic understanding of the whole package of ecosystem services.
From the contribution of green space to the quality of the environment to the quality of life, including passive health benefits and active enhancement of physical and mental health.

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