David Fromkin - A peace to end all peace: the fall of the ottoman empire and the creation of the modern Middle East, 1914-1922

A L S O BY D A V I D F R O M K I N

The Independence of Nations

The Question of Government

DAVID F R O M K I N

A PEACE TO

END A L L PEACE

T H E F A L L O F T H E O T T O M A N E M P I R E

A N D T H E C R E A T I O N O F T H E M O D E R N

M I D D L E E A S T

A N O W L B O O K

H E N R Y H O L T A N D C O M P A N Y

N E W Y O R K

H e n r y Holt and Company, L L C

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o f H e n r y Holt and Company, L L C .

Copyright 1989 by D a v i d Fromkin

All rights reserved.

Distributed in C a n a d a by H. B. Fenn and C o m p a n y L t d .

L i b r a r y of C o n g r e s s Cataloging-in-Publication D a t aF r o m k i n , D a v i d .

A peace to end all peace.

Bibliography : p.

Includes index.

I S B N 0-8050-6884-8

1. G r e a t BritainForeign relationsMiddle East. 2. Middle E a s t F o r e i g nrelationsGreat Britain. 3. M i d d l e EastPolitics and g o v e r n m e n t 1 9 1 4 - 1 9 4 5 .

I. Title.

D S 6 3 . 2 . G 7 F 7 6 1989 327.41056 88-34727

H e n r y Holt books are available for special promotions andp r e m i u m s . For details contact: Director, Special Markets.

F i r s t published in hardcover in 1989 by Henry Holt and C o m p a n yF i r s t Owl Books Edition 2001

Printed in the United States of America

13 15 16 14

"After 'the war to end war' they s e e m

to have been pretty s u c c e s s f u l in P a r i s

at m a k i n g a 'Peace to e n d P e a c e . ' "

A r c h i b a l d Wavell (later F i e l d M a r s h a l E a r lW a v e l l ) , an officer w h o s e r v e d u n d e r Allenbyin the Palestine c a m p a i g n , c o m m e n t i n g onthe treaties b r i n g i n g the F i r s t World War

to an e n d

C O N T E N T S

List of Illustrations and Maps

Photo Credits

Acknowledgments

A Note on Spelling

Introduction

P A R T I At the C r o s s r o a d s of H i s t o r y

1 T H E L A S T D A Y S O F O L D E U R O P E 2 3

2 T H E L E G A C Y O F T H E G R E A T G A M E I N A S I A 2 6

3 T H E M I D D L E E A S T B E F O R E T H E WAR 3 3

4 T H E Y O U N G T U R K S U R G E N T L Y S E E K A N A L L Y 4 5

5 W I N S T O N C H U R C H I L L O N T H E E V E O F WAR 5 1

6 C H U R C H I L L S E I Z E S T U R K E Y ' S W A R S H I P S 5 4

7 A N I N T R I G U E A T T H E S U B L I M E P O R T E 6 2

P A R T I I K i t c h e n e r o f K h a r t o u m L o o k s A h e a d8 K I T C H E N E R T A K E S C O M M A N D

9 K I T C H E N E R ' S L I E U T E N A N T S

1 0 K I T C H E N E R S E T S O U T T O C A P T U R E I S L A M

1 1 I N D I A P R O T E S T S

1 2 T H E M A N I N T H E M I D D L E

P A R T I I I B r i t a i n i s D r a w n into the

M i d d l e E a s t e r n Q u a g m i r e

1 3 T H E T U R K I S H C O M M A N D E R S A L M O S T L O S E T H E WAR

1 4 K I T C H E N E R A L L O W S B R I T A I N T O A T T A C K T U R K E Y

1 5 O N T O V I C T O R Y A T T H E D A R D A N E L L E S

1 6 R U S S I A ' S G R A B F O R T U R K E Y

1 7 D E F I N I N G B R I T A I N ' S G O A L S I N T H E M I D D L E E A S T

1 8 A T T H E N A R R O W S O F F O R T U N E

1 9 T H E W A R R I O R S

2 0 T H E P O L I T I C I A N S

2 1 T H E L I G H T T H A T F A I L E D

8 C O N T E N T S

2 2 C R E A T I N G T H E A R A B B U R E A U 168

2 3 M A K I N G P R O M I S E S T O T H E A R A B S 173

2 4 M A K I N G P R O M I S E S T O T H E E U R O P E A N A L L I E S 188

2 5 T U R K E Y ' S T R I U M P H A T T H E T I G R I S 200

P A R T I V S u b v e r s i o n

2 6 B E H I N D E N E M Y L I N E S 207

2 7 K I T C H E N E R ' S L A S T M I S S I O N 216

2 8 H U S S E I N ' S R E V O L T 218

P A R T V T h e Allies a t the N a d i r o f T h e i r F o r t u n e s2 9 T H E F A L L O F T H E A L L I E D G O V E R N M E N T S : B R I T A I N A N D F R A N C E 2 3 1

3 0 T H E O V E R T H R O W O F T H E C Z A R 239

P A R T V I N e w W o r l d s and P r o m i s e d L a n d s3 1 T H E NEW W O R L D 253

3 2 L L O Y D G E O R G E ' S Z I O N I S M 263

3 3 T O W A R D T H E B A L F O U R D E C L A R A T I O N 276

3 4 T H E P R O M I S E D L A N D 2 8 4

P A R T V I I I n v a d i n g the M i d d l e E a s t

3 5 J E R U S A L E M F O R C H R I S T M A S 305

3 6 T H E R O A D T O D A M A S C U S 315

3 7 T H E B A T T L E F O R S Y R I A 3 3 2

P A R T V I I I T h e S p o i l s o f Victory

3 8 T H E P A R T I N G O F T H E WAYS 351

3 9 B Y T H E S H O R E S O F T R O Y'

P A R T I X T h e T i d e G o e s O u t

4 0 T H E T I C K I N G C L O C K 383

4 1 B E T R A Y A L 389

4 2 T H E U N R E A L W O R L D O F T H E P E A C E C O N F E R E N C E S 403

P A R T X S t o r m over A s i a

4 3 T H E T R O U B L E S B E G I N : 19191921 415

4 4 E G Y P T : T H E W I N T E R O F 19181919 417

4 5 A F G H A N I S T A N : T H E S P R I N G O F 1919 421

4 6 A R A B I A : T H E S P R I N G O F 1919 4 2 4

4 7 T U R K E Y : J A N U A R Y 1920 427

C O N T E N T S

4 8 S Y R I A A N D L E B A N O N : T H E S P R I N G A N D S U M M E R O F 1920 435

4 9 E A S T E R N P A L E S T I N E ( T R A N S J O R D A N ) : 1920 4 4 1

50 P A L E S T I N E A R A B S A N D J E W S : 1920 4 45

51 M E S O P O T A M I A ( I R A Q ) : 1920 449

52 P E R S I A ( I R A N ) : 1920 4 5 5

P A R T X I R u s s i a R e t u r n s t o the M i d d l e E a s t5 3 U N M A S K I N G B R I T A I N ' S E N E M I E S 465

5 4 T H E S O V I E T C H A L L E N G E I N T H E M I D D L E E A S T 471

5 5 M O S C O W ' S G O A L S 475

5 6 A D E A T H I N B U K H A R A 4 8 0

P A R T X I I T h e M i d d l e E a s t e r n S e t t l e m e n t o f 1922

5 7 W I N S T O N C H U R C H I L L T A K E S C H A R G E 493

5 8 C H U R C H I L L A N D T H E Q U E S T I O N O F P A L E S T I N E 515

5 9 T H E A L L I A N C E S C O M E A P A R T 530

6 0 A G R E E K T R A G E D Y 540

6 1 T H E S E T T L E M E N T O F T H E M I D D L E E A S T E R N Q U E S T I O N 558