hawking - LEGO DC Universe super heroes : handbook

TheSuper-Universe

ByStephen D. Hawking

Copyright 201 Stephen D. Hawking

Smashwords Edition

Smashwords Edition, Licence Notes

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Contents

Gravitational Time Dilation

Visualising Gravity In Four Dimensions

Black Holes, The Big Bang & TheSuper-Universe

THESUPER-UNIVERSE

Part 1: Gravitational TimeDilation

Introduction:

According toEinsteins theory of General Relativity

in everygravitational field, a clock will go more quickly or less quickly,according to the position in which the clock is situated (atrest).1

If one clock issituated in a stronger gravitational field and another in a weakergravitational field, the clock in the weaker gravitational fieldgoes at a rate permanently faster than the clock in the strongergravitational field.

Furthermore, Einsteinpredicted the effect of gravitational red shift when the lightmeasured comes from an object with a stronger gravitational field,Einstein proposed the testing of this effect as an experimentalproof of the theory of General Relativity. In the words ofEinstein

a displacementtowards the red ought to take place for spectral lines produced atthe surface of stars as compared with the spectral lines of thesame element produced at the surface of the earth.1

Further to theaforementioned, I propose that although Einstein was correct in hisprediction, there is another explanation that would result in theexact same experimental results. My proposition is that Einsteinachieved the proper results, with improper working. The alternateexplanation contradicts one of the theory of Relativitys twopostulates, that the speed of light in a vacuum is the same in allinertial reference frames and is independent of the motion of thesource. Following from this I propose that although the speed oflight in a vacuum appears constant for all observers in allinertial reference frames, it may not actually be constant.

Part 1a: TheHypothesis

I outline below theeffects of gravitational red shift as mentioned above and draw adiagram of these two confirmed proposals from the theory of GeneralRelativity. [Figure 1]

An alternateexplanation for these two experimental results becomes apparentfrom visualising the situation. One should consider the possibilitythat instead of moving at a constant velocity, light accelerates asit leaves a stronger gravitational field and enters a weakergravitational field, proportional with an increase in the rate atwhich time advances.

Thus I have developeda new definition of time, I will introduce a concept the speed oftime (sot), where the sot is the ratio of the time at a certainlocation and/or velocity to the time as measured by someone in afixed location and/or velocity. The easiest method is if the sot ismeasured in the S.I. units of seconds/earth seconds(s/sE), where an earth second could be a second asmeasured at a particular location on the earth, like sea level atthe equator or the Greenwich observatory. The sot on earth wouldtherefore be equal to 1, while in regions where time is faster thesot is greater than 1 and where time is slower the sot is less than1.

It is worthwhile toconsider that if time is faster not only do clocks move faster, butchemical reactions happen faster, flora and fauna age faster, ourbrains work faster, so is it not possible that light also movesfaster? According to the aforementioned, any increase in the speedof light in a vacuum would be unnoticeable because the timingmechanism that is used to measure the speed of light would alsomove faster. If the sot was greater, or faster, in a particularregion, then a second (for example) would become shorter andtherefore light would have to travel faster in that shorter secondto cover the same distance as it would cover in a longer second(where the sot is less).

Thus by thisdefinition of time the speed of light in a vacuum can appear toremain constant when the speed of light in a vacuum is not actuallyconstant at all. However there is one way that a change in thespeed of light is noticed, by the red/blue shift that accompaniesthis change in the speed of light. The hypothesis is that while frequency appears to change,this is only because our measure of time has changed. Thefrequency, and therefore the energy of light remains constant,however the wavelength has changed. By this theorysdefinition of time, if time is faster then everything moves faster,including our clocks and including light.

In the course of thispaper, and my theory as a whole, I will examine some of theimplications of this new interpretation of some old experimentalresults and develop a new theory of time and gravity from firstprinciples.

Part 1b: The BasicEquations

Lets begin byintroducing another new definition, the speed of light as measuredfrom the perspective of someone on earth, and give it the valuecE measured in the S.I. units of metres/earth second, orm/sE. The energy of light is given by the relation

(1)

(Where E = energy, h =Plancks constant, E = frequency from the perspectiveof an observer on earth.)

If we assume by thefirst law of thermodynamics that energy is conserved, and if wealso assume that frequency remains constant from the perspective ofsomeone on earth, then we must first check that the units ofmeasurement are balanced, so we will now consider the S.I. units ofmeasurement with regards to this equation.

(2)

If we study equation(2) we notice that the value for frequency E mustchange if time changes, so lets think about this carefully, theunits for frequency arent really 1/sE butwaves/sE and if we take this into consideration whileassuming that the number of waves per second does not change, thenthe equation makes more sense. We could talk about the number of earth waves andconsider them to change in proportion to earth seconds, however awave is a wave regardless of what your measure of time, an earthwave is no different to simply a wave.

(3)

Now we can considerthe Planck constant to be a constant per wave, so it does notchange with time but remains a constant independent of the sot.However it must be noticed that the units on the left hand side ofequation (3) are not balanced, if sE changes then theenergy must also change, unless we introduce terms for eitherkgE or mE, which are kilograms asmeasured from the perspective of someone on earth and metres asmeasured from the perspective of someone on earth respectively. Nowwe know that either mass or distance must also change when timechanges. Next lets consider Einsteins most famous equation butwith the introduced term the speed of light as measured from theperspective of some on earth cE while keeping theunits in mind and remembering the first law of thermodynamics, thelaw of the conservation of energy