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Sergey N. Makarov Reinhold Ludwig - Practical Electrical Engineering

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Practical Electrical Engineering
Author:
Sergey N Makarov Reinhold Ludwig / Stephen J Bitar
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Springer International Publishing, Cham
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Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016

Sergey N. Makarov , Reinhold Ludwig and Stephen J. Bitar Practical Electrical Engineering 10.1007/978-3-319-21173-2_1

1. From Physics to Electric Circuits

Sergey N. Makarov 1, Reinhold Ludwig 2 and Stephen J. Bitar 3

(1)

ECE Department, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, Washington, USA

(2)

ECE Department, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, Massachusetts, USA

(3)

Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, Massachusetts, USA

Keywords

Electricity Electric field intensity Electric field Electric field magnitude Lines of force Electric potential Electric voltage Line integral Contour integral Conservative field Potential energy of the electric field Voltage drop Voltage difference Ground reference Neutral conductor Common conductor Voltage versus ground Equipotential lines Volumetric charge density Surface charge density Gauss theorem Equipotential surface Self-capacitance Electrostatic discharge Effect of electrostatic discharge on integrated circuits Boundary element method Electric current density Material conductivity Transmission line Direct current (DC) Electric load Ideal wire Kirchhoffs voltage law (KVL) Magnetic field Magnetic-field intensity Amperes law Cross (vector) product Poynting vector Poynting theorem Wireless communications Wireless power transfer Fluid mechanics analogy of an electric circuit Hydraulic analogy of an electric circuit Voltage source (hydraulic analogy) Resistance (hydraulic analogy) Current source (hydraulic analogy) Capacitance (hydraulic analogy) Inductance (hydraulic analogy) Electric transformer (hydraulic analogy) NMOS transistor (hydraulic analogy) Bipolar junction transistor (hydraulic analogy)

Overview

Prerequisites:

Knowledge of university physics: electricity and magnetism

Objectives of Section :

Show that the electric voltage and the electric potential may be treated as two equivalent quantities
Define the electric voltagework per unit chargein the form of a line integral and show its independence on the integration path for conservative fields
Relate voltage to the potential energy of the electric field
Introduce three-dimensional potential distributions and realize the guiding function of metal wires
Formulate and understand major conditions of electrostatics of conductors
Visualize surface charge distributions in the electrostatic case

Objectives of Section :

Introduce electric current density as a function of the applied electric field
Visualize steady-state current flow in a single conductor along with the associated electric potential/voltage distribution
Visualize electric and magnetic-field distributions for a two-wire DC transmission line
Obtain initial exposure to the Poynting vector
Realize that electric power is transferred via Poynting vector even in DC circuits
Indicate a path toward circuit problems where the field effects become important

Objectives of Section :

Review basic hydraulic (fluid mechanics) analogies for DC circuit elements
Present major hydraulic analogies for dynamic circuit elements in AC circuits
Briefly discuss hydraulic analogies for semiconductor components

Application Examples:

Human body subject to applied voltage
Human body in an external electric field

1.1 Electrostatics of Conductors

This introductory chapter is optional in the sense that the reader does not need its content as a prerequisite for the subsequent chapters. The aim of this chapter is to illustrate why electric circuits trace their origin to electromagnetic fields. The chapter highlights several field concepts which form the theoretical foundation of electric circuits. At the same time it makes clear why, for the majority of electric circuits, the electric and magnetic fields are often ignored without affecting the final results. When this is the case, the electric circuits and components follow useful and simple hydraulic analogies discussed below.

1.1.1 Charges, Coulomb Force, and Electric Field

Electric Charges

The smallest electric charge is known as the elemental charge of an electron, coulombs In electrical engineering we deal with much larger charges - photo 1

coulombs In electrical engineering we deal with much larger charges - photo 1

( coulombs ). In electrical engineering, we deal with much larger charges, which, for this reason, are assumed to be infinitely divisible. There are no positive movable charges in metal conductors. Therefore, when we talk about positive charges, it is implied that we have a lack of electrons at a certain location, e.g., at the surface. Oppositely, the negative charge is the excess of electrons at a certain location.

Definition of the Electric Field

Electrostatics plays a key role in explaining the operations of electric capacitors and all semiconductor devices. The word electricity is derived from the Greek word for amber. Probably Thales of Miletus was the first who discovered, about 600 B.C., that amber, when rubbed, attracts light objects. An electrostatic force acting on a charge q is known as the Coulomb force . This Coulomb force is a vector; it is measured in newtons (or N)

Practical Electrical Engineering - image 2

(1.1)

Equation (),

(1.2)

Electric Field of a Laboratory Power Source

As an example, we consider an electric field generated by a laboratory voltage source turned on. Figure is directed along particular lines, which we call lines of force . This electric field surrounds the power supply terminals. Every line of force starts at the positive terminal and ends at the negative terminal. The strength of the electric field everywhere in space is linearly proportional to the supply voltage as studied next. However, the field shape always remains exactly the same.

Fig. 1.1

Electric field emanating from a voltage supply with open-circuit output terminals

1.1.2 Electric Potential and Electric Voltage

The electric potential measured in volts (V) and electric voltage V measured in volts (V) are two identical quantities once they refer to the same observation point A and to the same reference point A . Both terms may be used; the electric potential is frequently denoted by V . The potential is more common in physics. Work is done against the electric forces when a charge is moved in an electric field. The electric potential or electric voltage

between points A (#1) and A (#2) is work in joules per coulomb (per unit charge) to bring a positive charge from reference point A (#2) to observation point A (#1), i.e., against the electric fieldsee Fig.. The work per unit charge over a short straight vector distance is 13 where is the angle between and - photo 6

is 13 where is the angle between and - photo 6

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