Karamagi - Advanced Python Programming

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Contents

OOP........................................................................................................ 1

Inheritance..................................................................................... 2

Loops............................................................................................ 13

i

ii

Decorator....................................................................................... 299

iii

B-tree ............................................................................................. 551

Deletion from a B-tree............................................................... 560

v

vii

viii

OOP

Object Oriented Programming Concepts

Object-oriented programming (OOP) refers to a type of computer programming (software design) in which programmers define the data type of a data structure, and also the types of operations (functions) that can be applied to the data structure.

In this way, the data structure becomes an object that includes both data and functions. In addition, programmers can create relationships between one object and another. For example, objects can inherit characteristics from other objects.

One of the principal advantages of object-oriented programming techniques over procedural programming techniques is that they enable programmers to create modules that do not need to be changed when a new type of object is added. A programmer can simply create a new object that inherits many of its features from existing objects. This makes object-oriented programs easier to modify.

An object-oriented programming language (OOPL) is a programming language based on the object-oriented perform object-oriented programming, one needs an object-oriented programming language. Many modern programming languages are object-oriented, however some older programming languages, such as Pascal, do offer object-oriented versions. Examples of object-oriented programming languages include Java, C++, C#, Python, Smalltalk etc. high-level

model. To

Abstraction

Abstraction is the process of picking out (abstracting) common features of objects and procedures. It is selecting data from a larger pool to show only the relevant details of the object to the user. Abstraction shows only the essential attributes and hides unnecessary information. It helps to reduce programming complexity and effort. It is one of the most important concepts of OOPs. Information hiding is the process of hiding details of an object or function. Information hiding is a powerful programming technique because it reduces complexity.

Encapsulation

Encapsulation is the process of combining elements to create a new entity. A procedure is a type of encapsulation because it combines a series of computer instructions. Encapsulation is one of the fundamental concepts in object-oriented programming (OOP). It describes the idea of bundling data and methods that work on that data within one unit, e.g., a class.

This concept is also often used to hide the internal representation, or state, of an object from the outside. This is called information hiding. The general idea of this mechanism is simple. If you have an attribute that is not visible from the outside of an object, and bundle it with methods that provide read or write access to it, then you can hide specific information and control access to the internal state of the object.

Encapsulation Concept

Inheritance

Inheritance is a mechanism in which one class acquires the property of another class. For example, a child inherits the traits of his/her parents. With inheritance, we can reuse the fields and methods of the existing class. Hence, inheritance facilitates reusability and is an important concept of OOPs.

Types of Inheritance

Single Inheritance
Single inheritance enables a derived class to inherit properties and behavior from a single parent class. It allows a derived class to inherit the properties and behavior of a base class, thus enabling code reusability as well as adding new features to the existing code. This makes the code much more elegant and less repetitive. In Single Inheritance one class extends another class (one class only).

Single Inheritance
In above diagram, Class B inherits features from only Class A. Class A is a super class and Class B is a Sub-class.

Multiple Inheritance
Multiple inheritance is a feature of some object-oriented computer programming languages in which an object or class can inherit characteristics and features from more than one parent object or parent class.

Multiple Inheritance
As per the above diagram, Class C inherits features from both Class A and Class B.

Multilevel Inheritance
In Multilevel Inheritance, one class can inherit from a derived class. Hence, the derived class becomes the base class for the new class.

Fig: Multilevel Inheritance
As per shown in diagram Class C is subclass of B and B is a of subclass Class A.

Hierarchical Inheritance
When more than one classes inherit a same class then this is called hierarchical inheritance. In other words, one class is inherited by many sub classes or a parent class has many children.

Hierarchical Inheritance
As per the above example, Class B, C, and D inherit the same class A.

Hybrid Inheritance Hybrid inheritance is inheritance. A class a combination

is derived from of multiple and two classes as hierarchical in multiple

inheritance and the classes can inherit the same parent class as in hierarchical inheritance.
Hybrid inheritance
As per above example, all the public and protected members of Class A are inherited into Class D, first via Class B and secondly via Class C.

Access specifiers
Access specifiers define how the members of the class can be accessed. There are three common types:
1. Public
2. Private
3. Protected

Public
Public class members are accessible out side the class and it is available for every one.

Private
Private class members are accessible with the class and it is not accessible out side the class. By default class variables and member functions are private.

Protected
Protected class members are similar to the private access specifier. It makes a class member inaccessible outside the class but can be accessed by any subclass of that class.

Polymorphism

Polymorphism is the ability of an object to take on many forms. The most common use of polymorphism in OOP occurs when a parent class reference is used to refer to a child class object.

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