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Simon Ball - The Bitter Sea: The Struggle for Mastery in the Mediterranean 1935–1949

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The Bitter Sea: The Struggle for Mastery in the Mediterranean 1935–1949: summary, description and annotation

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A lucid and masterly biography of the Mediterranean during a time of war, from Mussolinis audacious bid for conquest to the creation of Israel and the start of the Cold War. The Bitter Sea is a fascinating interpretation of world affairs and a significant contribution to twentieth century history.With incisive strategic and political analysis, Simon Ball demonstrates in this dramatic narrative how the Mediterranean Sea lay at the heart of recent world history.The British conceived the Mediterranean as the worlds great thoroughfare, from Gibraltar in the west to the Suez Canal in the east. For Mussolini, the Mediterranean was Mare Nostrum, the stage for his violent vision of conquest. The French commanded an impressive navy and key ports. The Nazis found willing allies in the lands that encircled the sea. The Americans imagined a new kind of empire in the Mediterranean.The blue waters of the Mediterranean, and its golden pavement of surrounding nations, witnessed a brutal conflict of unlikely foes and opportunistic alliances. Spaniard fought Spaniard, German fought Italian, American confronted Arab and Briton killed Frenchman. The Mediterranean struggle was a modern, high intensity war - fought on land, sea and air. Its titanic battles stretched from Malaga to Beirut, from El Alamein to Anzio. It was also a war of propaganda, deception, insurgency and terrorism, where the lines of battle were not clearly defined. As the author demonstrates in sparkling prose, the Mediterranean was indeed the bitter sea.Based on the most up-to-date research, including newly-released intelligence dossiers, Simon Balls compelling account untangles the plans and actions of the wars most powerful decision makers, famous and forgotten. The result is exceptionally readable and original.

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HarperPress

An imprint of HarperCollinsPublishers

7785 Fulham Palace Road

Hammersmith, London W6 8JB

www.harpercollins.co.uk

Visit our authors blog: www.fifthestate.co.uk

Copyright Simon Ball 2009

Endpaper map National Geographic

Maps HarperCollinsPublishers 2009

Simon Ball asserts the moral right to be identified as the author of this work

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

EPub Edition 2009 ISBN: 978-0-007-33234-2

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publishers.

The Guardsmen

The Cold War: An International History

The Bomber in British Strategy

To Helen

INTRODUCTION

Bruno Waterfield (Tripoli), Gaddafi attacks Sarkozy Plan for Union of the Med, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/world news/europe/2277517/Gaddafi-attacks-Sarkozy-plan-for-Union-of-the-Med.html

Heather Nicholson, At Home and Abroad with Cine Enthusiasts: Regional Amateur Filmmaking and Visualizing the Mediterranean, 19281962, GeoJournal, 59 (2004), 32333.

Denis Cosgrove, John Ruskin and the Geographical Imagination, Geographical Review, 69 (1979), 4362, 58.

Garret Mattingly, review of La Mditerrane et le monde Mditerranen lpoque de Philippe II in American Historical Review, 55 (1950), 34951.

Fernand Braudel, Personal Testimony, Journal of Modern History, 44 (1972), 44867; Howard Caygill, Braudels Prison Notebooks, History Workshop Journal, 57 (2004), 15160.

Ian Morris, Mediterraneanization, Mediterranean Historical Review, 18 (2003), 3055; J. de Pina-Cabral, The Mediterranean as a Category of Regional Comparison: A Critical View, Current Anthropology, 30 (1989), 399406.

Lawrence Martin, The Miscalled Middle East, Geographical Review, 34 (1944), 3356; C. G. Smith, The Emergence of the Middle East, Journal of Contemporary History, 3 (1968), 317; Alford Carleton, Near East versus Middle East, International Journal of Middle East Studies, 6 (1975), 2378; Matthew Jacobs, The Perils and Promise of Islam: The United States and the Muslim Middle East in the Early Cold War, Diplomatic History, 30 (2006), 70539.

I. S. O. Playfair et al. (eds), The Mediterranean and the Middle East (London, HMSO, 6 vols [physically 8], 19541987). The British official military history, when read in conjunction with its companion volumes on intelligencewhich reveal information about Ultra unavailable to the original teamremains the fullest and best extended treatment of the 19391945 conflict.

Trumbull Higgins, The Anglo-American Historians War in the Mediterranean, 19421945, Military Affairs, 34 (1970), 848.

David Reynolds, In Command of History: Churchill Fighting and Writing the Second World War (London, Penguin, 2005), 523.

Douglas Porch, Hitlers Mediterranean Gamble: The North African and the Mediterranean Campaigns in World War II (London, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2004).

CHAPTER ONE

Aldous Huxley, Eyeless in Gaza (London, Chatto & Windus, 1936). The novel sets the dropping of the dog at noon on 30 August 1933. Huxleys essays on Mediterranean travel, Along the Road, were published in 1925. Huxley took heed of his own warning, abandoned the Mediterranean and decamped for California.

Claudio Segr, Italo Balbo: A Fascist Life (Berkeley, University of California Press, 1987), 1947.

Tim Benton, Dreams of Machines: Futurism and lEsprit Nouveau, Journal of Design History, 3 (1990), 1934, 34.

R. J. B. Bosworth, Mussolini (London, Arnold, 2002), 1434, 30711.

Ray Moseley, Mussolinis Shadow: The Double Life of Count Galeazzo Ciano (New Haven, 1999), 1720.

Galeazzo Ciano, Diary, 19371943 (London, Phoenix Press, 2002), 28 August 1937. The specific projects were Spain and Albania.

Andrew Ryan, The Last of the Dragomans (London, Geoffrey Bles, 1951), 334.

Elizabeth Monroe, The Mediterranean in Politics (Oxford, OUP, July 1938), 11.

Denis Mack Smith, Mussolinis Roman Empire (London, 1976), 8990.

Record by Sir Alexander Cadogan of a conversation with Signor Fracassi, 5 September 1936, British Documents on Foreign Policy, Series II, XVII.

Robert Mallett, The Italian Navy and Fascist Expansionism, 19351940 (London, 1998), 548.

Lawrence Pratt, East of Malta, West of Suez: Britains Mediterranean Crisis, 19361939 (Cambridge, 1975), 46, 121.

D. H. Cole, Imperial Military Geography: General Characteristics of the Empire in Relation to Defence (London, Sifton Praed, 8th edition, April 1935), 89112, 2912.

Lieutenant-Colonel A. C. Arnold, The Italo-Abyssinian Campaign, 193536, Journal of the Royal United Service Institution, 82 (1937), 7185.

Churchill to Hoare, 29 August 1935, Churchil Papers/(Printed Papers, London, Heinemann, 1966 onwards).

Major-General Robert Haining in discussion with Lieutenant-Colonel A. C. Arnold, The Italo-Abyssinian Campaign, 193536, Journal of the Royal United Service Institution, 82 (1937), 858.

R. A. C. Parker, Great Britain, France and the Ethiopian Crisis, 19351936, English Historical Review, 89 (1974), 293332, 296.

Steven Morewood, The British Defence of Egypt, 19351940: Conflict and Crisis in the Eastern Mediterranean (London, 2005), 845.

Quoted in Nicholas Rankin, Telegram from Guernica (London, Faber & Faber, 2003), 33.

Angelo Del Boca, The Ethiopian War, 19351941 (Chicago, Chicago University Press, 1969), 801. Although the Italian use of gas was notorious, Fascist propaganda retained its grip for decades. The Italian Ministry of Defence only officially admitted to the gas campaign in November 1995.

Sir Warren Fisher to Sir Robert Vansittart, 21 April 1936, quoted in Pratt, East of Malta, West of Suez, 35.

Robert Mallett, Fascist Foreign Policy and Official Italian Views of Anthony Eden in the 1930s, The Historical Journal, 43 (2000), 15787.

Mack Smith, Mussolinis Roman Empire, 11920.

Nicholas Doumanis, Myth and Memory in the Mediterranean: Remembering Fascisms Empire (Basingstoke, Macmillan, 1997), 45.

Dilek Barlas, Turkish Diplomacy in the Balkans and Mediterranean: Opportunities and Limits for Middle-power Activism in the 1930s, Journal of Contemporary History, 40 (2005), 44164.

Anthony Eden to Winston Churchill, 16 April 1937 and Winston Churchills speech to the House of Commons, 14 April 1937 in Churchill Papers, 19361939; Charg dAffaires, Paris to Foreign Ministry, Berlin, 25 September 1937 in Documents on German Foreign Policy, Series D, III; Paul Preston, Italy and Spain in Civil War and World War, 19361943 in Sebastian Balfour and Paul Preston (eds), Spain and the Great Powers in the Twentieth Century (London, Routledge, 1999), 15184.

Moseley, Mussolinis Shadow, 27.

Raymond Proctor, They Flew from Pollensa Bay, Aerospace Historian, 24 (1977), 196202 and Hitlers Luftwaffe in the Spanish Civil War (Westport, Greenwood, 1983); Robert Whealey, Hitler and Spain: The Nazi Role in the Spanish Civil War, 19361939 (Lexington, University of Kentucky Press, 1989), 57.

Morten Heiberg, Mussolini, Franco and the Spanish Civil War: An Afterthought, Totalitarian Movements & Political Religions,

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