Andrea Kiss - The Dance of Death in Late Medieval and Renaissance Europe: Environmental Stress, Mortality and Social Response

Astrid E.J. Ogilvie

I do not write about sea monsters as I have not read much about them, although I have seen very many, up until they left us during the great dearth winter that occurred in 1602 (Jn Gumundsson

This paper focuses primarily on climate impacts on humans and animals, in particular in connection with the sea ice that drifted to Icelands shores on the East Greenland Current. Icelands vulnerability to environmental stress arises from its particular location in the North Atlantic. It is situated at a juncture between warmer Atlantic air and ocean currents to the south, and colder Arctic air and currents to the north, and lies on the pathway between the Iceland Low and the Azores High air pressure systems. The variability in weather and climate that this causes can lead to much storminess and unsettled conditions. Iceland has most tellingly been termed the Land of Fire and Ice (Thrarinsson 1956). Arising literally out of volcanic activity some 18 million years ago, Iceland is situated on top of a large volcanic fissure in the Mid-Atlantic Ridge where the Eurasian and American tectonic plates meet (Einarsson 1994). The island experiences frequent volcanic eruptions and earthquakes, sometimes as often as every five years. However, the intensity of the eruptions varies; some are hardly noticeable, and others have had disastrous consequences and caused great loss of life (Bjarnar 1965; Demare and Ogilvie 2001, 2017; Grattan 2007). However, during the period of focus only one volcanic eruption is described in the sources (in 1612). In times past Iceland has also been adversely affected by the presence of sea ice (Ogilvie 2010, 2015, 2017). In recent times this visitor is rare, in line with diminishing sea ice in the Arctic (Serreze and Stroeve 2015). When the ice came it most commonly affected the north, northwest and northeast parts of the country. On rare occasions it reached as far as the south and southwest.

From the time of the earliest settlers to the late-nineteenth century, the most important economic activity in Iceland was farming (Jlusson and Jnsson 2013); however, for the most part, due to the climate, the only crop that could be grown was grass. This crop was vital providing fodder for the livestock over the winter, in particular the cattle and sheep. The presence of sea ice off the coasts had the effect of lowering temperatures on land and thus impacting the all-important grass crop (Ogilvie 2001). The chain of circumstances that occurred on many occasions through Icelands history was that lack of winter fodder caused livestock to die, and then the human population also suffered famine, and many died. Frequently, farms were deserted, and attendant misfortunes occurred (Ogilvie 1982, 2005). Fishing was also important, although primarily for those living close to the sea, and in times of famine a buffer existed for people to seek the coasts in the hope of procuring fish and marine mammals (Ogilvie and Jnsdttir 2000). However, the present of sea ice could prevent fishing and the landing of trading vessels, thus exacerbating the hardships already caused by lack of sustenance from the land. Other environmental factors of note were the soil erosion that set in soon after Iceland was first settled, and which has continued to the present day. This impacted farming practices leading to the desertion of farms (Ogilvie and McGovern 2000; Streeter and Dugmore 2014). Deforestation set in at the same time; however, this has a long and complex history (Eysteinsson 2012, 2015). The stormy weather that distinguishes North Atlantic locations occasioned numerous shipwrecks among both local fishermen and foreign traders (Ogilvie 2019).

While the focus here is on environmental conditions the social and political context for these may be mentioned briefly. The history of Iceland as a populated country begins around AD 871, when it was settled by people primarily from Norway and the northern British Isles. The early centuries after settlement are known as the Commonwealth Period. This lasted until 1262/1264, when Iceland became part of the Norwegian realm. The Kalmar Union, effected in 1397, united Norway with Denmark and Sweden. At that time, Iceland, Greenland and the Faroes were still regarded politically as part of Norway. In 1523, the Union came to an end, but some elements remained until 1536, when the Danish Privy Council unilaterally declared Norway to be a Danish province. Although Norway kept some separate institutions, Iceland, Greenland and the Faroes came directly under the Danish Crown. Although it was only in 1814, with the Treaty of Kiel, that Iceland became formally subject to Denmark, in practice, Danish administration was directly imposed on Iceland in 1662 with the initiation of the Danish Absolute Monarchy. Iceland became an independent republic in 1944.

With regard to foreign trade, during Icelands Commonwealth Period, this was mainly controlled by the Icelanders themselves, and goods were carried in their own ships. However, as time went on, trade increasingly came to be controlled by others (Carus-Wilson 1933; Marcus 19561957; orsteinsson 1965). An important factor in this development was undoubtedly the decline in the number of ships owned by Icelanders and the dependence in Iceland on foreign trade for essential goods. During Icelands rule by Norway and Denmark, highly restrictive trading policies toward Iceland were exercised by both these countries. Throughout the sixteenth century Denmark sought to increase its control over Iceland, both politically and economically, and to secure trading privileges in Iceland. This policy culminated when, in 1602, the Danes established a monopoly of trade with Iceland which lasted until 1787 (Ails 19261927). The monopoly was never popular with the Icelanders and, on the whole, it had a detrimental effect on their economy. In the wake of the Reformation, the power of the Danish kings increased, both with regard to trade and governance.

Early literary and historical sources for Iceland include medieval annals and various sources of the saga genre, most famous of which are the Sagas of Icelanders (Hreinsson 1997; Hartman et al . 2017). However, from 1430, when these annals cease, and through the fifteenth century, very little historical material regarding the climate and the environment exists. The cause of the decline in historical writing must largely be attributed to the economically and socially disruptive effects of the plague which first ravaged Iceland in the period 14021404 and again in 14941495. The sources that do exist for the period ca. 1500 to 1600 include an interesting history of Icelandic bishops known as the Biskupa Annlar or Bishops Annals, usually translated as a History of Icelandic Bishops (Egilsson 1856). This was written by Jn Egilsson (15481636?) a priest who lived much of his life in the south of Iceland at Hrepphlar and at Sklholt. His focus was on the Bishops of Sklholt from early times to 1587 (with the death of Bishop Gsli Jnsson) and certainly not on environmental issues, but he mentions certain events relating to the climate such as severe snow-winters and good years for grass. His account was completed in 1605 and thus is not contemporary for the most part, but a number of his descriptions are included here as it seems likely that he did try to write a truthful account, and he refers frequently to oral informants.

A resurgence in the writing of medieval-type annals may be seen in the form of an annal written by a priest, Gottsklk Jnsson (ca. 15241590). In the latter part of his life when he was writing the annal he lived at Glaumbr in Skagafjord in the north. His annal is known as Gottsklksannll and is contemporary and independent for the period from c. 1562 to 1578 (published in: Storm 1977). This includes a continuation by his son Jn Gottsklksson. The work contains some interesting weather information.