D.R. Cook - Lancastrians and Yorkists: The Wars of the Roses

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Associated Book Publishers Ltd for extracts from English Historical Documents Vol IV edited by A. R. Myers published by Methuen; Oxford University Press for extracts from The Usurpation of Richard III edited by C. A. J. Armstrong 2nd Edition (c) Oxford University Press 1969.

The reign of Henry V (14131422) witnessed a level of achievement beyond all contemporary expectations. After his accession, Henry immediately set about reviving the military glories of his great-grandfather, Edward III. He was fortunate in the timing of his claim to the French throne as France was in turmoil due to the insanity of Charles VI. Henry invaded France in 1415. The campaign began with the successful siege of Harfleur and culminated in the great English victory at Agincourt (St Crispins Day, 25 October 1415). It made King Henry a national hero.

However, the strain on the countrys military and financial resources was already apparent. Henry was unable to follow up his triumphs of 1415 for two years. He then systematically conquered Lower Normandy. The campaign of 14171419 ended in the successful six-month siege of Rouen. Henrys triumph in France, which led to the capture of Paris, was sealed by the murder of Duke John the Fearless of Burgundy by the supporters of the Dauphin on the bridge at Montereau in September 1419. The Burgundians now became the firm allies of the English and the new Duke, Philip the Good, negotiated the Treaty of Troyes (May 1420) with Henry V. The English King was made heir to the French throne and was to marry the daughter of Charles VI. The Dauphin, now beleaguered and penniless in Bourges, was disinherited. It seemed as if all France lay at Henrys feet, but he had less than three years to live, and Troyes was not to be the final triumph, only a step in that direction.

Henry has been described as the greatest man that ever ruled England, but in the context of the fifteenth century it is very difficult not to view him as an able but shortsighted adventurer (, p. 133). Even if he had lived, it is doubtful whether Henry could ever have firmly established the Lancastrian dynasty in France. The spirit of resistance, albeit somewhat dimmed, still shone in many areas of France. In England, on the contrary, there were definite signs of war-weariness. Henry was hard pressed for both men and money in the last years of his reign. Parliament had readily granted taxation in a first flush of enthusiasm for the war, but by the early 1420s the Commons were growing increasingly reluctant. Loans postponed the inevitable crisis, but as debts mounted so creditors became ever more wary.

Yet the Lancastrian empire survived the death of its creator in August 1422. On his death-bed, Henry designated his very able brother John, Duke of Bedford, as Regent in France. Bedford was able to maintain the vital Burgundian alliance and make steady military progress. The French were defeated at Cravant in July 1423 and again at Verneuil in August 1424. By the end of 1425 Maine and parts of Anjou were in English hands. Three years later the Earl of Salisbury, against the advice of Bedford, decided to seize a bridge head over the Loire and threaten the Dauphins power in southern France. He began the siege of Orleans in 1428. However, the English had dangerously stretched their limited resources. Despite an intensive propaganda campaign in favour of the war, fewer Englishmen wished to serve in France, and Parliament went on believing the military effort should pay for itself. It was these considerations which undoubtedly influenced Bedford to advise against the siege of Orleans.

The appearance of Joan of Arc in the spring of 1429 changed the complexion of the war. In two years she relieved Orleans, inspired the French soldiers to defeat the English at Patay (May 1429) and crowned Charles VII at Rheims (July 1429), before being burnt at Rouen in May 1431. Bedford laboured tirelessly to maintain the deteriorating military position but his authority in France was increasingly being questioned by his younger brother, Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, and the Council in England. He became progressively more disillusioned, particularly after the death of his wife Anne. The decline in the war effort convinced many on the Council, but notably Cardinal Beaufort, of the need for a peace settlement. The result was the peace conference at Arras in autumn 1435. However, the English delegation refused to discuss Henry Vis claim to the French crown and walked out. This was a disastrous tactic as it left the way open for Philip the Good to withdraw from the English alliance and come to an agreement with Charles VII []. With the collapse of the Anglo-Burgundian alliance, the English position in France was no longer viable. To make matters worse Bedford died shortly after the ill-fated conference at Arras.