Matjaž Mikoš - Advancing Culture of Living with Landslides: Volume 3 Advances in Landslide Technology
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This volume contains peer-reviewed papers from the Fourth World Landslide Forum organized by the International Consortium on Landslides (ICL), the Global Promotion Committee of the International Programme on Landslides (IPL), University of Ljubljana (UL) and Geological Survey of Slovenia in Ljubljana, Slovenia from May 29 to June 2, 2017. The complete collection of papers from the Forum is published in five full-color volumes. This third volume contains the following: One keynote lecture Landslide Monitoring and Warning: Monitoring Techniques and Technologies, Early Warning Systems Landslide Disasters and Relief: Case Studies, Emergency Measures, First Aid, Civil Protection Measures Landslide Mitigation, Remediation and Stabilization: Landslide Protection Works, Landslide Stabilization And Remediation Measures, Landslide Non-Structural Measures Prof. Matja Miko is the Forum Chair of the Fourth World Landslide Forum. He is the Vice President of International Consortium on Landslides and President of the Slovenian National Platform for Disaster Risk Reduction. Prof. eljko Arbanas is representative of Croatian Landslide Group, member of the International Consortium on Landslides. He is the Head of Geotechnical Chair at Faculty of Civil Engineering University of Rijeka, Croatia and the Assistant Editor-in-Chief of International Journal Landslides./p> Prof. Yueping Yin is the President of the International Consortium on Landslides and the Chairman of the Committee of Geo-Hazards Prevention of China, and the Chief Geologist of Geo-Hazard Emergency Technology, Ministry of Land and Resources, P.R. China. Prof. Kyoji Sassa is the Founding President of the International Consortium on Landslides (ICL). He is Executive Director of ICL and the Editor-in-Chief of International Journal Landslides since its foundation in 2004. IPL (International Programme on Landslides) is a programme of the ICL. The programme is managed by the IPL Global Promotion Committee including ICL and ICL supporting organizations, UNESCO, WMO, FAO, UNISDR, UNU, ICSU, WFEO, IUGS and IUGG. The IPL contributes to the United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction and the ISDR-ICL Sendai Partnerships 20152025.
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Springer International Publishing AG 2017
Matja Miko , eljko Arbanas , Yueping Yin and Kyoji Sassa (eds.) Advancing Culture of Living with Landslides 10.1007/978-3-319-53487-9_1Remote Sensing Techniques in Landslide Mapping and Monitoring, Keynote Lecture
Nicola Casagli 1
(1)
Department of Earth Sciences, University of Firenze, Via G. La Pira 4, 50121 Florence, Italy
Nicola Casagli
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Veronica Tofani (Corresponding author)
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Stefano Morelli
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William Frodella
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Andrea Ciampalini
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Federico Raspini
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Emanuele Intrieri
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Abstract
The current availability of highly developed remote sensing technologies in the field of landslide detection, mapping and monitoring allows for rapid and easily updatable data acquisitions, improving the traditional investigation capabilities, even in hazardous or inaccessible areas, while granting at the same time the safety of the operators during the fieldwork. In this work various application of remote sensing techniques for landslide detection, mapping and early warning, from spaceborne to ground-based platforms are described. Among earth observation (EO) techniques in the last decades optical and radar images are very effective tools for these implementations, since very high spatial resolution can be obtained by means of optical systems (currently in the order of magnitude of tens of centimeters), and by the new generations of synthetic aperture radar (SAR) sensors designed for interferometric applications, with revisiting times of few days. At the same time in the recent years, ground-based remote sensing techniques have undergone a significant increase of usage, thanks to their technological development and quality data improvement, in terms of spatial resolution and accuracy, fast measurement and processing times, portability and cost-effectiveness of the acquiring instruments. In this paper, the potential of space-borne imaging techniques, ground-based remote sensing methods and the effectiveness of their synergic use in the field of landslide analysis is explored by reviewing their state of the art, and by analyzing various case studies, characterized by different slope instability processes, spatial scales and emergency management phases. After assessing the advantages and limitations of the proposed methods, further fields of applications are evaluated.Keywords
Landslides Remote sensing SAR Landslide mapping Landslide monitoringIntroduction
Landslides play an important role in the evolution and shaping of aerial/subaerial landscapes (Brunetti et al. ). They are characterised by operational efficiency and accuracy of data not reached by traditional methods: high-resolution acquisition, multifunction versatility, device portability, low cost sensors, easy and fast data processing. Such equipment allows for systematic and easily updatable acquisitions of data that may also enhance the implementation of effective early warning systems at slope scale. In this paper the potential of the abovementioned remote sensing techniques (both spaceborne and ground-based), and their applications for landslide detection and mapping are evaluated.
The presented techniques are described by means of their main technical features and applicability in different observed scenarios, typology of landslide (Cruden and Varnes ) and geomorphological setting. Some case studies are also shown and discussed in order to exhibit good practices in landslide characterization and prediction by means of different techniques and sensors in synergic action. The main advantages and disadvantages of the presented techniques are described and some suggestions for their use in different stages of landslide analysis are proposed.
Remote Sensing Techniques
Optical VHR Data
Space-borne multi- and hyper-spectral sensors represent important alternative data sources able to characterize the spectral properties of landscapes and provide useful information on landslide and neighboring areas. The most important active optical satellites are reported in Fig. ). 
Fig. 1
Most important active optical satellites
Satellite SAR Data
SAR (Synthetic Aperture Radar) is an active object-detection system that operates in the microwave range of the electromagnetic spectrum. Figure shows all the radar satellites. The great benefit derived by using such illuminating source (generated by a transmitting antenna), characterized by lower frequency and longer wavelength with respect to the visible right, is that radar sensors are capable of penetrating clouds and can operate independently of weather conditions and illumination. Transmitting their own energy, SAR sensors are designed to carry out their task 24 h per day, 365 days per year. 
Fig. 2
Most important radar satellites used in interferometry
SAR sensors emit signals with a specific central frequency, the so-called operating frequency, which characterizes signal propagation and penetration features. The most commonly used bands in satellite radar applications are C-band (56 GHz, ~5.6 cm wavelength), X-band (812 GHz, ~3.1 cm wavelength) and L-band (12 GHz ~23 cm wavelength). The family of satellites, carrying platforms hosting the SAR sensors, orbits the Earth at an altitude ranging from 500 to 800 km above the Earths surface, following sun-synchronous, near-polar orbits, slightly inclined with respect of Earth meridians. The sensor to target direction, inclined of an angle with respect to the vertical, is referred to as Line Of Sight (LOS) and it varies accordingly to satellite employed ( usually ranges from 23 to 34). The combination between the Earths rotation movement and the polar orbits of all SAR satellites, allows the sensor to scan along predetermined paths and to gather information of the same target from two opposite acquisition geometries: ascending and descending. Satellite SAR systems are designed to acquire images through different operating modes, with increasing spatial coverage but coarsening resolution. Each mode is specifically designed to acquire a target area with different swaths and resolutions, to fit the specific needs requested in different application fields, ranging from basin-scale mapping to localized emergency situations. Besides the spatial coverage, also temporal resolution of satellite SAR data depends on the SAR platform. SAR sensors can only acquire images at the frequency of the satellite repeat orbit. The time taken for a satellite to re-pass over the same area is called the revisiting time.
A SAR image is composed of pixel corresponding to a ground area. Each pixel is defined by amplitude and phase values. The amplitude values depend on the intensity of electromagnetic field back-scattered by the illuminated objects towards the satellite. Phase values of a single SAR image is related to the sensor-target distance, to a contribution due to propagation of the microwave through the atmosphere plus a noise term inherent of the acquisition system. Recorded phase information is the key element to detect occurred displacement. SAR Interferometry is the technique specifically thought, designed and implemented to measure changes of signal phase over time through the analysis of two or more SAR images.
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