Khosrow-Pour - Encyclopedia of Information Science and Technology

Encyclopedia of Information Science and Technology, Fourth Edition

• Mehdi Khosrow-Pour, D.B.A.
  Information Resources Management Association, USA

Published in the United States of America by IGI Global (an imprint of IGI Global) 701 E. Chocolate Avenue Hershey PA 17033 Tel: 717-533-8845 Fax: 717-533-8661 E-mail: cust@igi-global.com Web site: http://www.igi-global.com/reference

Copyright 2018 by IGI Global. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored or distributed in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, without written permission from the publisher.

Product or company names used in this set are for identification purposes only. Inclusion of the names of the products or companies does not indicate a claim of ownership by IGI Global of the trademark or registered trademark.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Khosrow-Pour, Mehdi, 1951- editor.
Title: Encyclopedia of information science and technology / Mehdi
Khosrow-Pour, editor.
Description: Fourth edition. | Hershey, PA : Information Science Reference,
[2018] | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017000834| ISBN 9781522522553 (set : hardcover) | ISBN
9781522522560 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Information science--Encyclopedias. | Information
technology--Encyclopedias.
Classification: LCC Z1006 .E566 2018 | DDC 020.3--dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017000834

British Cataloguing in Publication Data

A Cataloguing in Publication record for this book is available from the British Library.

All work contributed to this book is new, previously-unpublished material. The views expressed in this book are those of the authors, but not necessarily of the publisher.

This book is dedicated to the memory of my late father for the love and care that he always displayed for his family, and for teaching me the importance of humanitarianism. Also, to my wife, Olga, and our son, Darius, for filling my life with so much love, joy, and happiness.

Editorial Advisory Board

Ari-Veikko Anttiroiko, University of Tampere, Finland

S. Annie Becker, Florida Institute of Technology, USA

Shirley M. Fedorovich, Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University, USA

Wen-Chen Hu, University of North Dakota, USA

Jerzy Kisielnicki, Warsaw University, Poland

In Lee, Western Illinois University, USA

James A. Rodger, Indiana University of Pennsylvania, USA

Ari Sigal, Catawba Valley Community College, USA

Lawrence A. Tomei, Robert Morris University, USA

John Wang, Montclair State University, USA

Liudong Xing, University of Massachusetts, Dartmouth, USA

Jordi Vallverd, Universitat Autnoma de Barcelona, Spain

Editorial Review Board

Mifrah Ahmad, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Malaysia

Bashar Shahir Ahmed, University Abdelmalek Essaadi, Morocco

Daniel Alemneh, University of North Texas, USA

Salam Omar Ali, Brighton College, UAE

Paul Ankomah, North Carolina A&T University, USA

Andrea Atzeni, Politecnico di Torino, Italy

Danilo Avola, Sapienza University, Italy

Ihuoma Babatope, Delta State Univeristy Abraka/ Delta State College of Physical Education, Mosogar, Nigeria

Mihaela Badea, Petroleum-Gas University of Ploiesti, Romania

Surajit Bag, Tega Industries South Africa Pty Ltd, South Africa

Kannan Balasubramanian, Mepco Schlenk Engineering College, India

Neeta Baporikar, Namibia University of Science and Technology, Nigeria

Nomathamsanqa (Thami) Batyashe, Cape Peninsula University of Technology, South Africa

Clementina Bruno, University of Piemonte Orientale, Italy

Claudia Cappelli, Universidade Federal do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Calin Ciufudean, Stefan cel Mare University, Romania

ngela Coello, University of Vigo, Spain

Eduardo Contreras, Autonomous University of Coahuila, Mexico

Caroline Crawford, University of Houston-Clear Lake, United States

Phil Crosby, Curtin University, Australia

Nicoletta Dess, Universit degli Studi di Cagliari, Italy

Nic Dunham, Unitec Institute of Technology, New Zealand

Christophe Duret, Universit de Sherbrooke, Canada

Alexander Fridman, Russian Academy of Sciences, IIMM KSC RAS, Russia

Draena Gapar, University of Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina

Ciara Heavin, University College Cork, Ireland

Masoud Hemmatpour, Politecnico di Torino, Italy

Adamkolo Mohammed Ibrahim, University of Maiduguri, Nigeria

Shigeru Ikuta, Otsuma Women's University, Japan

Giuseppe Iurato, University of Palermo, Italy

George Jamil, Informaes em Rede, Brazil

Jurgen Janssens, TETRADE Consulting, Belgium

Michael Josefowicz, Nemetics Institute Kolkata, USA

Prateek Kalia, I.K Gujral Punjab Technical University, India

Yefim Katz, Chestnut Hill College, USA

Nadim Akhtar Khan, University of Kashmir, India

Maria Koleva, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Bulgaria

Raghuraman Koteeswaran, SASTRA University, India

Priya Krishnamoorthy, SASTRA University, India

Sefer Kurnaz, Istanbul Esenyurt University, Turkey

Trent Larson, North Carolina A&T University, USA,

Elvira Locuratolo, ISTI, Italy

Ronald Lofaro, Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University, USA

Geetha Mariappan, Kamaraj College of Engineering and Technology, India

M.K. Marichelvam, Mepco Schlenk Engineering College, India

Gilberto Marzano, Rezekne University of Applied Sciences, Latvia

Lincy Mathews, M S Ramaiah Institute of Technology, India

Karim Mezghani, Al Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University (IMSIU), Tunisia

Emilia Mikolajewska, Ludwik Rydygier Collegium Medicum in Bydgoszcz, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Torun, Poland

Dariusz Mikolajewski, Kazimierz Wielki University, Poland

Vardan Mkrttchian, HHH University, Australia

Jessina Muthee, Kenyatta University, Kenya

Antonio Osorio, University of Minho, Portugal

Leo Paschoal, Federal University of Cruz Alta, Brazil

Prantosh Paul, Raiganj University, India

Danilo Piaggesi, FRAmericas, International Knowledge Economy Program (IKEP), USA

Diana Presada, Petroleum-Gas University of Ploiesti, Romania

Mohd Rahman, Aligarh Muslim University, India

N. Raghavendra Rao, FINAIT Consultancy Services, India

Jos Rasco, Polytechnic Institute of Setbal, Portugal

Filipa Ribeiro, University of Porto, Portugal

Gerasimos Rigatos, Industrial Systems Institute, Greece

John Robinson, Bishop Heber College, India

Juan Rodriguez, UNICEN CONICET, Argentina

Isabel Romero, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Spain

Roya Rouzbehani, University of Tehran, Iran

John C. Sandvig, Western Washington University, USA

Francesca Sgobbi, University of Brescia, Italy

Huma Shah, Coventry University, UK

Dolly Sharma, PEC University of Technology, India

Teay Shawyun, King Saud University, Saudi Arabia

Zeljko Stojanov, University of Novi Sad, Serbia

Apostolos Syropoulos, Greek Molecular Computing Group, Greece

Safiye Turgay, Sakarya University, Turkey

Immanuel Umukoro, Lagos Business School, Pan Atlantic University, Nigeria

Tugba Ucma Uysal, Mugla Sitki Koman University, Turkey

JT Velikovsky, University of Newcastle, Australia