Annette Baker Fox - Canada in World Affairs (Acsus Papers)
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The Association for Canadian Studies in the United States (ACSUS)
The Association for Canadian Studies in the United States (ACSUS), founded in 1971, is a multidisciplinary academic organization devoted to encouraging and supporting the study of Canada and the Canada-United States relationship in all its facets. ACSUS publishes a quarterly scholarly journal, The American Review of Canadian Studies, a regular newsletter, Canadian Studies Update, and hosts a biennial conference atrracting over 600 participants. ACSUS is the largest association of Canadian Studies specialists in the world.
Also published by ACSUS:
Northern Exposures: Scholarship on Canada in the United States, edited by Karen L. Gould, Joseph T. Jockel, and William Metcalfe (1993) ISBN 1-883027-00-4
Copyright 1989, 1996, The Association for Canadian Studies in the United States, Washington, D.C. and Michigan State University Press.
Page iii
Acknowledgment
The ACSUS Papers were conceived to provide suitable core materials for introductory college courses and solid background material for more focused courses on Canada for undergraduates in the United States. The first edition, published in 1989, was extremely successful in serving this market. The concept of the series has withstood the test of time and ACSUS is pleased to cooperate with Michigan State University Press on this second edition.
This edition was made possible with the assistance of the Government of Canada/avec l'aide du Gouvernement du Canada.
Editors:
Joseph T. Jockel St. Lawrence University
Victor M. Howard Michigan State University
Page 1
World War II marked the coming of age of Canada as a political actor on the world scene. The war and immediate postwar years also temporarily alleviated the twin problems perennially confronting Canadian decision makers: how to manage the almost suffocating proximity of the United States and how to maintain some central control in an exceptionally loose confederation that included "two founding peoples." During the war Canadians began to speak of their country as a "middle power," neither a great power nor a small power. The term suggested a particular kind of role which Canada could play, and in fact it has become the archetypical middle power.
Historical Background
Canadians have always been perplexed about their identity as a nation and the role of Canada as a state. In contrast to the United States, Canada became a fully sovereign state without having to fight for its independence. Except for memories of the War of 1812, there was no bloody armed conflict to provide emotional support for the new country at its founding. In the twentieth century, however, Canada's contribution in two world wars earned it recognition as a significant actor in world politics.
The British North America Act of 1867 brought together under one national roof most of the separate colonial governments and provided Canada with a constitution that apportioned power between provinces and the central government. The act thereby acknowledged Canada's right to self-government, but it conferred no status in foreign affairs. Canada's foreign relations continued to be conducted by Britain, not always to the satisfaction of the Canadians.
Recognition of Canada's independent role in world affairs took place in small symbolic steps as Canadian leaders began to claim a separate voice in relations with other countries. In 1871 the Canadian prime minister signed the Treaty of Washington, which had been concluded between the United States and Britain to settle disputes arising out of the American Civil War, but he was disappointed not to have achieved Canadian objectives with respect to some issues arising with the United States, including the fisheries question. In 1909 the Canadian government established a small Department of External Affairs to acquire information independent of that supplied by Britain. In that year also the Boundary Waters Treaty was signed, the first agreement Canada negotiated on its own with the United States; under it the International Joint Commission was established to study environment problems affecting the shared waters and to recommend action. The first
Page 2
treaty Canada insisted on signing on its own, also with the United States, was the Pacific Halibut Treaty of 1923, another environmental measure.
On matters of "high policy" Canadian leaders began early in the twentieth century to call for a voice of their own in British Empire affairs and to disclaim involvement without representation. The Canadian government sought a veto over the use of whatever armed forces it chose to make available and wanted such forces to be under Canadian command. During World War I British-Canadian relations became heated over the issue of command; eventually the Canadian Corps was put under a Canadian commander. London also agreed to an Imperial War Council, in which the prime ministers of the British dominions could participate. A Canadian contingent sent to Siberia in 1919 as part of the Western effort to oppose Communist rule was withdrawn within six months because of Canadian dissatisfaction with its use.
Meanwhile, at the Paris Peace Conference following World War I, Canada, like the other dominions, had separate representation, despite U.S. opposition to allowing the British to have "more than one voice." Although not yet independent states, Canada and the other "old dominions" also joined the League of Nations as separate members. These concessions were partly an acknowledgment of their large military contribution to the Allies' victory. However, Canada was not invited to the Washington Disarmament Conference of 1922 despite its role in persuading the British not to renew the Anglo-Japanese alliance, the end of which was one reason for calling the conference.
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