Macdougall - Natures Clocks: How Scientists Measure the Age of Almost Everything

If nobody asks me, I know what time is, but if I am asked,
then I am at a loss what to say.

Saint Augustine of Hippo, a.d. 354430

While hiking in the Alps one day in 1991, Helmut Simon and his wife had a disturbing experience: they discovered a body. It was partly encased in the ice of a glacier, and their first thought was that it was an unfortunate climber who had met with an accident, or had been trapped in a storm and frozen to death. Word of the corpse spread quickly, and a few days later several other mountaineers viewed it (see figure 1). It was still half frozen in the ice, but they noticed it was emaciated and leathery, and lacking any climbing equipment. They thought it might be hundreds of years old. This possibility generated considerable excitement, and in short order the entire body was excavated from its icy tomb and whisked away by helicopter to the Institute of Forensic Medicine at the University of Innsbruck, in Austria. Researchers there concluded that the corpse was thousands rather than hundreds of years old. They based their estimate on the artifacts that had been found near the body.

As careful as the Innsbruck researchers were, their age assignment for the ancient Alpine Icemanlater named Oetzi after the mountain range where he was foundwas necessarily qualitative. An ax found with the body was in the style of those in use about 4,000 years ago, which suggested a time frame for Oetzis life. Other implements associated with the remains were consistent with this estimate. But how could researchers be sure? How is it possible to measure the distant past, far beyond the time scales of human memory and written records? The answer, in the case of Oetzi and many other archaeological finds, was through radiocarbon dating, using the naturally occurring radioactive isotope of carbon, carbon-14. (Isotopes and radioactivity will be dealt with in more detail in chapter 2, but, briefly, atoms of most chemical elements exist in more than one form, differing only in weight. These different forms are referred to as isotopes, and somebut by no means allare radioactive.)

Figure 1. Oetzi, the Alpine Iceman, still partly frozen in ice shortly after his discovery. Two mountaineers, Hans Kammerlander (left) and Reinhold Messner (right) look on, one of them (Kammerlander) holding a wooden implement probably used by Oetzi for support. Photograph by Paul Hanny / Gamma, Camera Press, London.

Tiny samples of bone and tissue were taken from Oetzis corpse and analyzed for their carbon-14 content independently at two laboratories, one in Oxford, England, and the other in Zurich. The results were the same: Oetzi had lived and died between 5,200 and 5,300 years ago (the wear on his teeth suggested that he was in his early forties when he met his end, high in the Alps, but thats another chronology story ). Suddenly the Alpine Iceman became an international celebrity, his picture splashed across newspapers and magazines around the world. Speculation about how he had died was rife. Did he simply lie down in exhaustion to rest, never to get up again, or was he set upon by ancient highwaymen intent on robbing him? (The most recent research indicates that the latter is most likely; Oetzi apparently bled to death after being wounded by an arrow.) Fascination about the life of this fellow human being, and his preservation over the millennia entombed in ice, stirred the imagination of nearly everyone who heard his story.

Oetzi also generated a minor (or perhaps, if you care deeply about such things, not so minor) controversy. When he tramped through the Alps 5,000 years ago, there were no formal borders. Tribes may have staked out claims to their local regions, but the boundaries were fluid. In the twentieth century, however, it was important to determine just where Oetzi was found. To whom did he actually belong? Although he was kept initially in Innsbruck, careful surveys of his discovery site showed that it was ninety-two meters (about one hundred yards) from the Austria-Italy borderbut on the Italian side. As a result, in 1998 Oetzi was transferred (amicably enough) to a new museum in Bolzano, Italy, where he can now be visited, carefully stored under glacierlike conditions.

Radiocarbon dating is just one of several clever techniques that have been developed to measure the age of things from the distant past. As it happens, this particular method only scratches the surface of the Earths very long history; to probe more deeply requires other dating techniques. But a plethora of such methods now exists, capable of working out the timing of things that happened thousands or millions or even billions of years ago with a high degree of accuracy. The knowledge that has flowed from applications of these dating methods is nothing short of astounding, and it cuts across an array of disciplines. For biologists and paleontologists, it has informed ideas about evolution. For archaeologists, it has provided time scales for the development of cultures and civilizations. And it has given geologists a comprehensive chronology of our planets history.