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List of Illustrations
Frontispiece. Map of the Roman empire
1. A fort gate at Maryport carved on a stone
2. The Rudge Cup
3. Geophysical survey of Maryport (survey by TimeScape)
4. Inscription of Commodus from Lower Pannonia
5. Plan of the unfinished first-century legionary base at Inchtuthil (Scotland)
6. Plan of Housesteads fort on Hadrians Wall (Britain)
7. An artists impression of a fort. Drawn by Michael J. Moore
8. An artists impression of a fortlet. Drawn by Michael J. Moore
9. An artists impression of a tower. Drawn by Michael J. Moore
10. Plans of the late-first-century fort at Elginhaugh and the fourth-century fort at Altrip
11. Map of the frontier in Upper Germany and Raetia
12. Plan of the fort at Hesselbach on the frontier in the Odenwald (Germany)
13. An artists impression of a tower on the German frontier. Drawn by D. Baatz
14. Map of Hadrians Wall in its landscape setting
15. Plans of a milecastle and a tower on Hadrians Wall
16. Plan of the fort at Chesters on Hadrians Wall
17. An artists impression of Hadrians Wall. Drawn by Michael J. Moore
18. Map of the Antonine Wall in its landscape setting
19. Plan of the fort and annexe at Rough Castle on the Antonine Wall (Scotland)
20. An artists impression of the Antonine Wall. Drawn by Michael J. Moore
21. Diagram illustrating the development of the limes in Upper Germany
22. An artists impression of the frontiers in Upper Germany and Raetia
23. Diagram illustrating the development of Hadrians Wall and the Antonine Wall
24. Map of the frontier in Lower Germany
25. Map of the late Roman frontier on the Danube-Iller-Rhine line
26. Plan of Divitia /Cologne (Germany)
27. An artists impression of a fortified landing place
28. Map of the frontier in the Middle Danube region
29.Plan of the fortlets/fortified landing places at Ulcisa Castra /Dera Patak and Contra Florentiam /Dunafalva
30. Plan of the fort at Contra Aquincum /Budapest (Hungary)
31. Plan of the fort at Eining (Germany)
32. Plan of the late forts at Boiodorum /Passau (Germany) and Drobeta /Turnu Severin (Romania)
33. Plans of towers at Mains Rigg, Asperden, Budakalasz, Goldsborough
34. Map of the northern section of the eastern frontier in Cappadocia and Syria
35. Map of the southern sector of the eastern frontier in Syria and Arabia
36. Plan of el-Lejjun (Jordan)
37. Plan of Qasr Bshir (Jordan)
38. Map of Tripolitania
39. Map of the Nile Valley and the Eastern Desert of Egypt
40. Map of Dacia
41. Map of the towers and barrier to the north-west of the province of Dacia
42. Map of the frontier in Mauretania Caesariensis
43. Map of the eastern end of the Black Sea
44. Map of the north-western corner of the Black Sea
45. Map of the Saxon Shore
46. Plans of the Saxon Shore fort at Portchester
47. Plan of the Saxon shore fort at Pevensey
48. Plans of fortlets dating to the early empire in Britain and Germany
Acknowledgements
I have been lucky to have worked intensively on two frontiers in Britain, Hadrians Wall and the Antonine Wall; fortunately, both retain the ability to surprise through new information obtained from excavation or as the result of research in the study. I have also visited the whole of the European frontier from Katwijk on the Dutch coast to the Black Sea with the exception of modern Serbia, much of the eastern frontier but only a small section in North Africa. In spite of several visits to some areas, I would not admit to having more than a limited knowledge and am grateful to the many friends and colleagues who have helped me visit frontiers and understand them better and who have discussed frontier problems with me over many years, and in particular those who have read and commented on earlier drafts of this book as well as colleagues who have helped with references. These include Dietwulf Baatz, Alan Beale, Paul Bidwell, James Bruhn, Walter Cockell, Orietta Cordovana, Brian Dobson, Beryl Elliott, Bill Errington, George Findlater, Phil Freeman, Erik Graafstal, Bill Hanson, Nick Hodgson, Sonja Jilek, Rebecca Jones, Valerie Maxfield, Ioana Oltean, Andrew Poulter, Boris Rankov, Alan Rushworth, Sebastian Sommer, Matthew Symonds, Andreas Thiel, Zsolt Visy and Willem Willems. Jackie Henrie has applied her considerable skills as a copy editor to the text, for which I am most grateful. I am also grateful to Phil Sidnell of Pen & Sword for inviting me to write this book.
While I was working on this book I was invited by Professor Bill Hanson to give the Dalrymple lectures at the University of Glasgow. This was useful in helping me to shape and firm up many ideas which are detailed here and I am grateful to the members of the audience for their feedback.
I should like to thank Richard Beleson for financial assistance with the illustrations, and the following for help with providing the illustrations: Jim Devine of the Hunterian Museum, Kurt Schaller of the University of Salzburg who prepared all the maps, Graeme Stobbs who provided several plans, and Andreas Thiel.
I am grateful to the following publishers for permission to reproduce translations: Professor A. R. Birley; Professor Brian Campbell; Dr. J. S. Johnson; Gerald Duckworth & Co. Ltd (Bristol Classical Press); The publishers and Trustees of the Loeb Classical Library, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, for the quotations from volumes 2, 111, 176, 249, 263 and 454, by the President and Fellows of Harvard College. Loeb Classical Library is a registered trademark of the President and Fellows of Harvard College; Liverpool University Press; Penguin Books Ltd.
Picture acknowledgements
