John McHugo - Syria: A Recent History

SYRIA ALSOBYJOHNMcHUGO AConciseHistoryoftheArabs 2014,2015byJohnMcHugo Allrightsreserved. Nopartofthisbookmaybereproduced,inanyform,withoutwrittenpermissionfromthepublisher. Requestsforpermissiontoreproduceselectionsfromthisbookshouldbemailedto:PermissionsDepartment,TheNew Press,120WallStreet,31stfloor,NewYork,NY10005. FirstpublishedinGreatBritainin2014bySaqiBooks ThiseditionpublishedintheUnitedStatesbyTheNewPress,NewYork,2015 DistributedbyPerseusDistribution ISBN978-1-62097-050-8(e-book) CIPdataisavailable TheNewPresspublishesbooksthatpromoteandenrichpublicdiscussionandunderstandingoftheissuesvitaltoour democracyandtoamoreequitableworld.Thesebooksaremadepossiblebytheenthusiasmofourreaders;thesupport ofacommittedgroupofdonors,largeandsmall;thecollaborationofourmanypartnersintheindependentmediaand thenot-for-profitsector;booksellers,whooftenhand-sellNewPressbooks;librarians;andaboveallbyourauthors. www.thenewpress.com 2 4 6 8 10 9 7 5 3 1 ToBenedict Youknowandweknow,aspracticalmen,thatthequestionofjusticearisesonlybetween parties equal in strength and that the strong do what they can, and the weak suffer what theymust. 1943 ElectionsreturnNationalBloctopowerunderleadershipofShukrial-Quwwatli SyriangovernmentgivesnoticetoFrenchthatSyriawillamenditsconstitutiontoprovideforcomplete independencefromFrance 1944 FrenchbegintransferringgovernmentdepartmentstoSyriancontrol 1945 SyriadeclareswaronGermanyandJapantobecomefoundingmemberofUnitedNations FrenchbombardDamascusandshellSyrianparliamentinlast-ditchattempttoretaintheirpresenceinSyria andLebanon.Britishgarrisonstakecontrol.FrenchbeginfinaldismantlingoftheirpresenceinSyria. 1946 FrenchandBritishtroopsleave SyrianowfullyindependentunderleadershipofPresidentShukrial-QuwwatliandhisNationalParty 1947 Syrianparliamentaryelections KingAbdullahofJordanproposescreationofkingdomofGreaterSyria UNGeneralAssemblyresolvestopartitionPalestinegivingdateforendofBritishMandateandtriggering civilwarinPalestine SyriainitiallysupportstheestablishmentofthevolunteerArabLiberationArmytoassistPalestinianArabs 1948 StateofIsraelproclaimedintheteethofPalestinianandArabopposition.Syrianarmyintervenes. 1949 CoupbyColonelHusniZaim.UnsuccessfulattempttonegotiatepeacewithIsraelbutceasefireagreed. 1949 CoupbyColonelHusniZaim.UnsuccessfulattempttonegotiatepeacewithIsraelbutceasefireagreed.

CoupbyColonelHinnawi.AkramHouraniandtheBathistMichelAflaqenterthecabinetforthefirsttime. Electionofconstituentassembly. CoupbyColonelAdibShishakli FormationofArabSocialistBathPartybyMichelAflaqandSalahal-DinBitarjoiningforceswithAkram 1952 Hourani AdibShishakliassumesofficeofpresident OverthrowofEgyptianmonarchybytheFreeOfficersledbyNasser 1954 FallofAdibShishakli Restorationofparliamentaryrule 1955 ParliamentelectsShukrial-Quwwatliaspresident Anti-CommunistBaghdadPact IsraeliraidonGaza 1956 NassernationalisestheSuezCanal SyriaestablishesdiplomaticrelationswithUSSR SyriafinallyobtainsmodernarmamentsfromtheUSSR TripartiteinvasionofEgyptbyBritain,FranceandIsrael 1957 Western-backedplotstodestabiliseSyria NassersendstroopstoLattakiatowidespreadSyrianacclaim 1958 UnionwithEgyptandestablishmentoftheUnitedArabRepublic DissolutionofBathPartyandsuppressionofCommunistsandotherpoliticalparties OverthrowofmonarchyinIraq 1961 MilitarycoupinDamascustakesSyriaoutofUAR ElectionofnewSyrianparliament 1963 CoupbyBathist,Nasseristandotherofficersendsparliamentaryrule SyriaputunderEmergencyLaw SuppressionofabortiveNasseristcoupconsolidatespowerinthehandsofBathistofficers 1964 UprisinginHama 1966 Intra-BathiststruggleendswithpurgeofMichelAflaqandoldguard.SalahJadidbecomesdefactorulerof Syria SixDayWarfollowingdiplomaticcrisisIsraelattacksanddefeatsEgyptandJordanthenseizesGolan 1967 Heights 1969 Theministerofdefence,Hafezal-Assad,consolidateshispositionattheexpenseofSalahJadid 1970 Hafezal-Assadseizespower Referendum(inwhichheistheonlycandidate)confirmsHafezal-AssadaspresidentofSyriaforhisfirst 1971 seven-yearterm October1973War.SyriaandEgyptattackIsraelbutareultimatelydefeated.Syrianforcestemporarily 1973 retakealargepartoftheGolanHeightsbutarepushedbackalmosttotwenty-fivemilesfromDamascus 1974 DisengagementofforcesbetweenSyriaandIsraelonGolanHeights 1975 BeginningofLebanesecivilwar 1976 SyriaintervenesinLebanesecivilwarestablishingbroadcontrolovermostofthecountry. Islamist-leddiscontentappearsinSyriaandleadstowaveofterrorism,especiallyassassinationsof prominentAlawis JimmyCarterinauguratedasUSpresident.HebeginsadeterminedattempttoachievepeaceintheArab 1977 IsraelidisputebuteventuallyhastosettleforaseparatepeacebetweenIsraelandEgyptbecauseofIsraeli position.Syrialeftoutinthecold. 1979 Iranianrevolution Egyptian-Israelipeacetreaty Aleppoartilleryschoolmassacre 1980 OutbreakoftheIran-IraqWar 1981 IsraelillegallyannexesGolanHeightsandtreatstheareaasitsownsovereignterritory 1982 BrutalandindiscriminaterepressionofIslamistuprisinginHamabyforcesledbyRifatal-Assad IsraelinvadesLebanon,ratchetingviolenceintheLebanesecivilwaruptonewlevels;siegeofWestBeirut; evacuationofPLOfightersfromLebanon;assassinationofpresident-electofLebanonBashirGemayel; electionofAminGemayelaspresidentofLebanon 1983 Hafezal-Assadseriouslyill;Rifatal-Assadrisestoprominence 1984 Warbetweenthebrothers:Hafezal-AssadremoveshisbrotherRifatfrompositionofpower 1987 OutbreakofIntifadainoccupiedPalestinianterritories 1988 EndofIran-IraqWar 1989 TaifAccordsprovideframeworktoendLebanesecivilwar 1990 IraqoccupiesKuwait SyriatemporarilyrehabilitatesitselfwiththeUSAandWestbyjoininganti-Iraqcoalition SyriantroopscrushGeneralAoun;SyrialeftwithhegemonicpositioninLebanon 1991 IraqiforcesdrivenfromKuwaitbyUS-ledcoalitionactingunderUNCharter SyriaparticipatesinUS-ledMadridconferenceaimedatfinallyendingArab-Israelidispute 1992 IntermittentnegotiationsbetweenSyriaandIsraelbeginandcontinueuntil1996withUSencouragement 1993 OsloAccordsproduceframeworktoendIsraeli-Palestiniandisputebutultimatelyfail 1994 DeathofHafezal-AssadssonBasilincarcrash Israel-Jordanpeacetreaty 1995 AssassinationofIsraeliPrimeMinisterYitzhakRabin ElectionofhardlineIsraeligovernmentledbyBenyaminNetanyahuwhichdoesnotrecogniseSyriasright 1996 totheGolanHeights 1997 IsraeliparliamentvotestoreiterateIsraelsassertionofsovereigntyovertheGolanHeights 1998 Hafezal-Assadshealthinobviousdecline;riseofhissonBashartoprominence 2000 IsraelwithdrawsfromSouthLebanon AttempttonegotiatepeacebetweenIsraeliPrimeMinisterEhudBarakandHafezal-Assadfails DeathofHafezal-Assadfromleukemia Basharal-Assadtakespower DamascusSpring ArielSharonvisitsEsplanadeoftheMosquesinEastJerusalemtriggeringSecondIntifada 2001 9/11 SyriasharesintelligencewithWesternpowersandisthankedforhelpingtosaveAmericanlives US-ledinvasionofAfghanistan 2002 Girlsgiventhefreedomtowearthehijabatschool 2003 US-ledinvasionofIraq;demonisationofSyriabecauseofitsoppositiontotheinvasion ForeignfightersuseSyrianterritorytoenterIraqandjoininsurgency USApassesSyrianAccountabilityAct 2004 PrivatebanksreturntoSyria 2005 AssassinationofLebanesePrimeMinisterRafiqHariri;Syriawidelybelievedtoberesponsible SyrianforceswithdrawnfromLebanon 2006 WarbetweenIsraelandHizbullah;Lebanondevastated NancyPelosiandotherUSparliamentariansvisitDamascus;signsofthawingofrelationsbetweenSyria 2007 andtheWest 2009 OpeningofDamascusstockexchange 2010 BeginningofArabSpringinTunisia 2011 ArabSpringspreadstoSyria;regimeconfrontsprotestswithviolenceincludinglethalforce OppositionSyrianNationalCouncilformed SyriasuspendedfromArabLeague 2012 Syriadescendsintocivilwarandthecountrydisintegrates SeverefightinginHoms,AleppoandsuburbsofDamascus 2013 MuchofeasternSyriapassesoutofgovernmentcontrol ChemicalattackinDamascussuburbs 2014 Regimesmilitarypositionappearstostabilise BreakdownofGenevaIIdiplomaticinitiatives ISISbulldozessectionsoftheboundarybetweenSyriaandIraqandproclaimsaCaliphate SiegeofKobane