Mario Bunge - Philosophy of Science Volume 2

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Science and Technology Studies

Mario Bunge, Series Editor

Philosophy of Science, Volume I: From Problem to Theory , Mario Bunge

Philosophy of Science, Volume 2: From Explanation to Justijication , Mario Bunge

Critical Approaches to Science and Philosophy , edited by Mario Bunge

Microfoundations, Method, and Causation: On the Philosophy of the Social Sciences , Daniel Little

Complexity: A Philosophical Overview , Nicholas Rescher

A Dictionary of Biology , M. Abercrombie, C.J. Hickman, and M.L. Johnson

The Prevention of Cancer: Pointers from Epidemiology , Richard Doll

Biotechnology: Between Commerce and Civil Society , Nico Stehr, editor

Philosophy of Science : The Historical Background, Joseph J. Kockelmans, editor

REVISED EDITION

VOLUME TWO

Philosophy of SCIENCE

FROM EXPLANATION TO JUSTIFICATION

MARIO BUNGE

Original edition published in 1967 by Springer-Verlag.

Published 1998 by Transaction Publishers

Published 2017 by Routledge

2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN

711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017, USA

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business Copyright 1998 by Taylor & Francis.

Copyright 1998 by Taylor & Francis

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.

Notice:

Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.

Library of Congress Catalog Number: 97-22359

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Bunge, Mario Augusto.

Philosophy of science / Mario Augusto Bunge.Rev. ed.

p. cm.(Science and Technology Studies)

Rev. ed. of: Scientific research. Berlin, New York: Springer-Verlag, 1967.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

Contents: v. 1.From problem to theoryv. 2. From explanation to justification.

ISBN 0-7658-0415-8 (set : pbk.: alk. paper)ISBN 0-7658-0413-1 (vol. 1 : pbk.: alk. paper)ISBN 0-7658-0414-X (vol. 2 : pbk.: alk. paper)

1. ResearchMethodology. 2. SciencePhilosophy. II. Title.

III. Series.

Q180.55.M4B64 1998

001.4'.DC21 97-22359

CIP

ISBN 13: 978-0-7658-0414-3 (vol. 2) (pbk)

ISBN 13: 978-0-7658-0415-0 (set)

Preface

This volume is a logical sequel of Volume 1, From Problem to Theory ; indeed, it concerns the ways theoretical systems are put to work and subjected to test. Yet it can be read independently by anyone familiar with some factual theories, referring back to Volume 1 when necessary.

Special Symbols

	the set A is included in the set B
A B	the union of the sets A and B
A B	the common part of the sets A and B
a A	the individual a as in (or belongs to) the set A
Card ( A )	cardinality (numerosity) of the set A
A B	Cartesian product of the sets A and B
Cn ( A )	consequence(s) of the set A of assumptions
= df	equals by definition
Df .	definition
(*)	some x (or there is at least one x such that)
e	empirical datum
e *	translation of e into a semiempirical, semitheoretical language
h	hypothesis
m ()	measured value of the degree
m(r)	average (or mean) value of a set of measured values of
P T	T presupposes P
p , q	arbitrary (unspecified) propositions (statements)
P ( X )	x has the property P (or x is a P )
{ x | P ( x )}	set of the x such that every x is a P
p q	p and/or q (inclusive disjunction)
p & p	p and q (conjunction)
p q	if p , then q (conditional or implication)
p p	if and only if q (biconditional or equivalence)
i	sum over i
t	theorem, testable consequence
t *	translation of t into a semiempirical, semitheoretical language
T	theory
A t	A , therefore t (or A entails t , or t follows logically from A )
the empty set
U	the universal set
x	arbitrary (unspecified) individual
( x )	for every x
x , y	ordered pair of the elements x and y

Contents

Part III
Applying Scientific Ideas

9. Explanation

10. Prediction

11. Action

In Part II we have analyzed the process that starts with questioning, proceeds with conjecturing, and ends up hy building syntheses of hypotheses, i.e. theories. We studied, in particular, both the form and the content or reference of factual theories, i.e. of systems of hypotheses supposed to mirror symbolically and sketchily pieces of reality. But so far we have hardly inquired into the use of theories. This will be done presently. On the other hand Part IV will be concerned with the problem of the adequacy of hypotheses and theories.

Factual theories are built chiefly in order to explain, predict, plan, or act. explanation incorporates initially isolated items into a unified body of knowledge and clams an intellectual itch alas, only temporarily. Prediction and retrodiction relate the present to the future and the past and thereby serve to test theories. Combined, explanation and prediction take part in the rational planning and execution of actions in particular, those occurring in scientific experience.

Theories can then be applied to cognitive as well as to practical aims. The cognitive applications of theories i.e., explanations, predictions, and the planning of experiments precede their practical applications. Indeed, before we do something in a rational way with a practical aim we must know what it is (description), understand why it should be so (explanation), find out whether it is nearly as our theoretical model says (testing), and reckon how it is likely to behave (prediction). Accordingly rational action, whether in industry, government, science, or private life, is action based on scientific knowledge both theoretical and experimental. Unlike spontaneous action, rational action is just the consummation of a choice made in the light of tested theories, or the execution of a plan built with their help.

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