Fujiwara Kazuhiro - LED Lighting for Urban Agriculture

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Part I
Perspective and Significance of LED Lighting for Urban Agriculture

Springer Science+Business Media Singapore 2016

Toyoki Kozai , Kazuhiro Fujiwara and Erik S. Runkle (eds.) LED Lighting for Urban Agriculture 10.1007/978-981-10-1848-0_1

1. Why LED Lighting for Urban Agriculture?

Toyoki Kozai 1

(1)

Japan Plant Factory Association (NPO), Kashiwa-no-ha, Kashiwa Chiba, 277-0882, Japan

Toyoki Kozai

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Abstract

The benefits of using light-emitting diodes (LEDs) in urban agriculture are discussed, along with the necessity of introducing information and communication technology (ICT). The incorporation of ICT into urban agriculture is now economically viable because the marginal costs of information processing, storage, and transfer are approaching zero. Electricity generated from renewable resources such as solar energy and biomass is also becoming cost-competitive with that generated from fossil fuel and nuclear power. Internet-connected plant factories lit with LEDs and greenhouses with LED supplemental lighting will serve as key components in urban agriculture. The potential for combined applications of ICT, artificial intelligence, and the Internet of Things in urban agriculture is described briefly. Finally, the concept of closed plant production system (CPPS) and its application in plant factory with LED lighting are described.

Keywords

Controlled-environment agriculture Greenhouse Light-emitting diode (LED) Plant factory with artificial lighting (PFAL) Supplemental lighting Urban agriculture

1.1 Introduction

Since 2007, more than half of world population are living in urban areas, and it is estimated that over 70% of world population would live there in 2050. Then, more and more people have recently been interested in urban agriculture or vertical farming (Despommier ).

1.1.1 Benefits of Urban Agriculture

Urban agriculture has two basic functions. One is to allow individuals to enjoy environmental horticulture as a hobby, and the other is to produce food and ornamental plants locally for sale to nearby residents. Food and ornamental plant production for local consumption can (1) save fossil fuel, labor time, and packaging material and thus transportation costs; (2) reduce postharvest losses due to damage during transport; (3) increase job opportunities, which benefits those living in urban areas; and (4) allow residents to enjoy a greater variety of fresh fruit and vegetables. By consuming locally-produced fresh food with minimum loss of quality and quantity, urban dwellers also use less electricity and/or fuel for shopping, processing, and cooking.

Since land prices in urban areas are high, the annual productivity of crops for sale per unit of land area must be considerably higher in PFALs and greenhouses than that in open fields. The annual productivity of leaf lettuce plants per unit land area is about 200-fold higher in PFALs and approximately tenfold higher in controlled-environment greenhouses compared with that in open fields (Kozai et al. ). If the soil is not sufficiently fertile to grow plants and/or is contaminated with toxic chemicals, heavy metals, etc., hydroponic systems with artificial substrates can be utilized which are isolated from the ground soil.

1.1.2 Benefits of Using Light-Emitting Diodes

Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) are increasingly common in numerous fields due to their good cost performance, relatively high electricity-to-light energy conversion factor, varied coloration (spectra), relatively low surface temperature, long lifetime, solid-state construction without gas, etc. Luminous efficacy (lumen per watt) of white LED tips was 75 in 2010, is 150 in 2016, and will reach around 200 in 2020 (Fig. ). Recent improvement in the luminous efficiency of organic LEDs has also been significant.

Fig. 1.1

Historical and predicted luminous efficacy of light sources (US Department of Energy )

Applications of LEDs for horticultural research have been conducted intensively since the 1990s (Massa and Norrie ), the HPS lamp versions are also now being replaced by LEDs.

Plant growth and development are affected by the ambient light, including photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD, sometimes called light intensity), cycle (light/dark period), ratio of diffuse to direct PPFD, angle determined by geometrical position or solar altitude and azimuth, and quality (wavelength or spectral distribution).

Plant morphology (flower bud initiation, internode length, branching, rooting, etc.) and secondary metabolite production (pigments, vitamins, etc.) are affected significantly by light quality and cycle. Therefore, LEDs with varying light qualities can be used to control morphogenesis and secondary metabolite production more efficiently, increasing the value of crops (see Parts 2 and 5 in this volume).

1.2 Scope of this Publication

This book focuses on LED lighting, mainly for the commercial production of horticultural crops in PFALs and greenhouses with controlled environments, with special attention to (1) plant growth and development as affected by light environment and (2) business and technological opportunities and challenges with regard to LEDs (Fig. ).

Fig. 1.2

Scientific, technological, and business key components and their structure of LED lighting for urban agriculture

It should be noted that LED lighting for urban agriculture in the forthcoming decades will not be just an advanced form of current urban agriculture. It will be largely based on two fields: One is a new paradigm and rapidly advancing new concepts, global technologies on LED, ICT, renewable energy, etc. and methodologies (Fig. ); the other one is basic science and technology which should not be changed for the next several decades. Then, we need to forget about conventional horticultural technology once and to start thinking about the forthcoming urban agriculture based on the abovementioned two fields.

Fig. 1.3

A scheme showing that closed plant production system (CPPS) as a major part of urban agriculture in the forthcoming decades will be largely dependent on a new paradigm, concepts, and methodologies, which are not directly related to conventional greenhouse horticulture

1.3 Technological Background to the Urban Agriculture of the Future

This section describes the technological background to the forms of urban agriculture expected to become widespread in the future. It should be noted that the marginal costs of information processing, storage, and transfer are now approaching zero, as are those of plant DNA genome sequencing (Rifkin ). Current fee rates for electricity generated from renewable energy sources are competitive with those generated by fossil fuel and nuclear power. These cost reductions will enable the development of sustainable, economically viable plant production systems with high yields and quality using minimal resources.

1.3.1 Local and Global Technology

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