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Leslie A King - Forensic Chemistry of Substance Misuse: A Guide to Drug Control

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Forensic Chemistry of Substance Misuse: A Guide to Drug Control: summary, description and annotation

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Updating and expanding the coverage of the first Edition, this book provides a chemical background to domestic and international controls on substances of misuse. In the United Kingdom, structure-specific (generic) controls have been further developed in the past 13 years and now cover 17 groups of compounds. The focus of those controls has been on new psychoactive substances (NPS). Since 1997, over 800 NPS have been reported to the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drugs Addiction. International generic and analogue controls are described together with a critical review of their effectiveness. Other, established, drugs are described as well as a large group of psychoactive substances that are not scheduled by the International Conventions

This book has general appeal to those needing information on illicit drugs including forensic scientists, lawyers, law enforcement agencies, drug regulatory authorities as well as graduate and postgraduate students of chemistry and the criminal law. The chapters are supported by chemical structures, numerous tables and charts, appendices, a glossary and a bibliography. This unique book is a valuable addition to the literature in this area and will be of great assistance to those studying this topic.

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CHAPTER 1

Drug Misuse

1.1 Introduction
Drugs whose possession or supply is restricted by law are known as scheduled or, in the UK, as controlled substances. They comprise both licit materials (i.e., those manufactured under licence for clinical use) and the illicit products of clandestine factories. Although many plant-based drugs have been self-administered for thousands of years (e.g., coca leaf, cannabis, opium, and peyote cactus), the imposition of criminal sanctions is mostly a product of the 20th century. Many of the drugs currently misused were once not only on open sale, but often promoted as beneficial products by the food and pharmaceutical industries. A pattern developed whereby initial misuse of pharmaceutical products such as heroin, cocaine and amphetamine led to increasing legal restrictions and the consequent rise of an illicit industry.
The word misuse signifies the non-authorised use of medicines that can, in appropriate circumstances, be legally used. That word has carried over into the title of the UK primary drug legislation, i.e., the Misuse of Drugs Act (MDAct), and to the corresponding legislation in a number of Anglophone countries. This was a departure from the earlier use in UK legislation of the title Dangerous Drugs. According to the WHO, scheduled drugs are abused. In this book, the term drug misuse is used since it is considered to be less judgemental. However, even the word misuse is somewhat misleading since many controlled drugs are not and never have been used therapeutically. This is particularly true of the huge range of, mostly synthetic, psychoactive substances that have appeared in the past 30 years. In many cases, it is appropriate to say that such substances are merely used. It is equally correct to say that medicinal products both licit and illicit, such as the benzodiazepine tranquillisers and certain analgesic drugs, are misused. In the following text, and for convenience, the word misuse applies to both situations.
1.2 Drug Misuse in England and Wales
Overall drug use in England and Wales has remained fairly stable in the past 20 years but is still predominantly associated with younger members of the population. Data for England and Wales are published, where appropriate, by the HO, Separate arrangements operate in the devolved administrations in Scotland and Northern Ireland. To a certain extent many of these data collections are limited by various factors. Thus, household surveys can only reach those who live in normal circumstances; some problem drug users are homeless. Drug seizures also depend partly on the level of enforcement. Furthermore, the total quantity of drugs seized can be distorted in any period by unusually large seizures. For this reason, number of seizures is a more reliable statistic, and particularly when relative seizures of closely related drugs are examined.
1.2.1 Household Surveys of Drug Misuse
gives an estimate of whether use of certain substances is declining/increasing relative to others. Magic mushrooms and mephedrone show the lowest value of this index (i.e., greatest negative change) while cannabis, powder cocaine, ketamine and anabolic steroids show the highest values of the index (i.e., greatest increase).

Figure 11 Estimates of the numbers thousands of illicit drug users 16- to - photo 1

Figure 1.1 Estimates of the numbers (thousands) of illicit drug users, 16- to 59-year-olds, in the period 2001/02 to 2017/18 (England and Wales) for any drug ever taken in lifetime (black bars) and taken in the last year (grey bars).

Table 1.1 Estimates of the numbers (thousands) of illicit drug users (16- to 59-year-olds) in 2017/2018 (England and Wales) by drug type and period when taken

SubstanceLast monthLast yearEverLast month/Ever
Powder cocaine33189535760.09
Crack cocaine8232730.03
Ecstasy17255933860.05
LSD1813417550.01
Magic mushrooms1014224660.004
Heroin13232150.06
Methadone5191500.03
Amphetamine3217332840.01
Methylamphetamine5162120.02
Cannabis11092420101250.10
Ketamine1032669410.10
Mephedrone3306290.004
Anabolic steroids35623160.11
NPSn/a127834n/a
1.2.2 Drug-associated Deaths
On a per capita basis, this is over three times the rate in England and Wales. It also the highest rate in Europe although there are some differences in the definition of drug-related deaths used by the Scottish Records Office, the ONS and the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA).

Table 1.2 Deaths in 2020 in England and Wales associated with specific substances

Substance(s) (opiates/opioids)Number of deathsSubstance(s) (others)Number of deaths
Heroin and morphine1337Cocaine777
Methadone516Amphetamine99
Tramadol203Ecstasy/MDMA82
Codeine212Cannabis36
Dihydrocodeine96NPS137
Oxycodone102Benzodiazepines476
Fentanyl57Zopiclone/Zolpidem146
Fentanyl analogues2Pregabalin344
Buprenorphine43Gabapentin118
Unspecified opiate150Barbiturates26

aCodeine and dihydrocodeine deaths exclude compound formulations.

Figure 12 Drug-associated deaths in England and Wales 20012020 123 - photo 2

Figure 1.2 Drug-associated deaths in England and Wales (20012020).

1.2.3 Seizures by Law Enforcement Agencies
.

Table 1.3 Drug seizures by Police in England and Wales in 2018/19. The classification of each substance (A, B or C) under the MDAct is shown

SubstanceNumber of seizuresSubstanceNumber of seizures
Cocaine (A)16653Amphetamine (B)3456
Crack cocaine (A)6556Barbiturates (B)15
Ecstasy (A)2687Ketamine (B)862
Heroin (A)8338Mephedrone (B)58
LSD (A)166Anabolic steroids (C)463
Methadone (A)407Benzodiazepines (C)2249

Figure 13 Police drug seizures in England and Wales in the period 200607 to - photo 3

Figure 1.3

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