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Margaret Ellen Newell - Brethren by Nature: New England Indians, Colonists, and the Origins of American Slavery

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In Brethren by Nature, Margaret Ellen Newell reveals a little-known aspect of American history: English colonists in New England enslaved thousands of Indians. Massachusetts became the first English colony to legalize slavery in 1641, and the colonists desire for slaves shaped the major New England Indian wars, including the Pequot War of 1637, King Philips War of 167576, and the northeastern Wabanaki conflicts of 16761749. When the wartime conquest of Indians ceased, New Englanders turned to the courts to get control of their labor, or imported Indians from Florida and the Carolinas, or simply claimed free Indians as slaves.

Drawing on letters, diaries, newspapers, and court records, Newell recovers the slaves own stories and shows how they influenced New England society in crucial ways. Indians lived in English homes, raised English children, and manned colonial armies, farms, and fleets, exposing their captors to Native religion, foods, and technology. Some achieved freedom and power in this new colonial culture, but others experienced violence, surveillance, and family separations.

Newell also explains how slavery linked the fate of Africans and Indians. The trade in Indian captives connected New England to Caribbean and Atlantic slave economies. Indians labored on sugar plantations in Jamaica, tended fields in the Azores, and rowed English naval galleys in Tangier. Indian slaves outnumbered Africans within New England before 1700, but the balance soon shifted. Fearful of the growing African population, local governments stripped Indian and African servants and slaves of legal rights and personal freedoms. Nevertheless, because Indians remained a significant part of the slave population, the New England colonies did not adopt all of the rigid racial laws typical of slave societies in Virginia and Barbados. Newell finds that second- and third-generation Indian slaves fought their enslavement and claimed citizenship in cases that had implications for all enslaved peoples in eighteenth-century America.

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Margaret Ellen Newell
From dependency to independence : economic revolution in colonial New England
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Margaret Ellen Newell
Brethren by Nature: New England Indians, Colonists, and the Origins of American Slavery

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BRETHREN BY NATURE New England Indians Colonists and the Origins of American - photo 1
BRETHREN BY NATURE
New England Indians, Colonists, and the Origins of American Slavery
MARGARET ELLEN NEWELL
CORNELL UNIVERSITY PRESS
Ithaca and London
For Keith and Michael and in loving memory
of James J. Newell, 19232013
CONTENTS
A CKNOWLEDGMENTS
Many institutions, as well as generous friends, aided in the preparation of this book. The National Endowment for the Humanities, the American Council of Learned Societies, the Huntington Library, the Massachusetts Historical Society, the John Carter Brown Library at Brown University, the John Nicholas Brown Center, the Mershon Center for International Security Studies, and the College of Arts and Humanities at Ohio State all supported my research and travel. Archivists at these institutions as well as at the Massachusetts State Archives, the Connecticut Historical Society, the Connecticut State Library, the Rhode Island Historical Society, and the Rhode Island Judicial Records Center helped me navigate court records and manuscripts. Jim and Gilda Newell, Tracy Vietze and Don Cox, and Kerry McCarthy and Andrew Fredman provided much moral support and housing during research trips in Boston, Marthas Vineyard, and Bermuda. Roxann Wheeler, Peter Wood, Joanne Pope Melish, Alan Gallay, and Stephanie Smith offered perceptive readings of rough drafts and chapters.
My biggest debt remains to my family, especially my husband, Keith Dimoff, and my son, Michael Newell-Dimoff. Both of them helped me in many, many waysmost of all by showing me what is important in life. This book is dedicated to them and to my father, Jim, a lover of history who died just as it was completed.
N OTE ON S PELLING AND D ATES
As much as possible I have retained the original spelling of manuscript and print sources quoted here. Early modern English writers commonly used y in place of i and e in words such as it and them and sometimes also employed a letter known as a thorn, written as y, to signify the sound th (as in ye for the). They employed the letters u and v, and i and j, interchangeably (have as haue) and utilized commonly understood contractions and abbreviations (wch for which and Maiies for Majesties). Until 1752, New England followed the old style Julian Calendar, in which the new year began March 25. All dates here reflect the Gregorian or modern calendar, except in a few instances in which I included both the old and new style dates separated by a slash.
Introduction
The Problem of Indian Slavery in Early America
In December 1739, Justice of the Peace Joshua Hempstead called an informal court to order in his New London, Connecticut, home. Before him was a complicated case, and he had to decide whether to dismiss it or send it to a jury trial at the county court. A man named Caesar had deserted the service of his master, Samuel Richards, who owned a blacksmith shop where Caesar worked. Richards filed a complaint and demanded Caesars arrest, claiming that Caesar was his slave. Caesar did more than simply run, however; he filed a countersuit that asserted he was a free man and no ones slave. Confused wording in the Richards complaint pointed to the complexity of the issue at hand: the document referred to Caeaser as a Mustee or Indian Serv[an]t, but someone had also inserted the words a Slave in parentheses. Caesars essential identity was at question: Was he a mustee (a biracial person of African and Indian origin) or an Indian? A servant, a slave, or a free person? What did these distinctions mean in eighteenth-century New England? Being categorized in a legal document as mulatto or mustee rather than Indian could make the difference between slavery and freedom. Rhode Island had outlawed the enslavement of local Indians, and the legality of Indian slavery remained unsettled in other colonies. But more than the question of his ethnicity was at stake in Caesars claim.
FIGURE 1 Map of New England showing approximate locations of Native American - photo 2
FIGURE 1 . Map of New England showing approximate locations of Native American and English settlements, ca. 1640.
Caesar recounted a very specific history to justify his freedom. His suit argued he ought not to be holden in Service as a Slave because he saies he was born of a Squaw named Betty who was a Captive in the late Indian war & not a Slave. Legally she had been a free woman before she gave birth to him, which made him free as well.
New London, where Caesar and Justice Hempstead lived, boasted more slaves than any other county in Connecticut, and people of color composed nearly 10 percent of New London citys population in 1740.
In Caesars case, however, Judge Hempstead did something surprising, given his own involvement in the African and Indian slave trade: he allowed the freedom suit to proceed. Caesar prevailed again at the trial stage and continued to live as a free man, his presence a constant challenge to owners of other Indian and African slaves in the New London area, as Richards pursued various appeals. Many Indians brought similar suits in the eighteenth century. Occasionally such freedom claims made it all the way to the Connecticut General Assembly. The magistrates hesitated to rule because they feared that freeing Indian slaves would upend the whole system of chattel slaveryboth Indian and Africanthat underpinned the economies of towns such as New London.
The stories of Caesar and the other Indians who challenged their enslavement in the eighteenth century highlight two facts: that slavery flourished in colonial New England, and that Native Americans formed a significant part of New Englands slave population.
Yet somehow Indian slavery virtually disappeared from postWorld War I scholarship on New England. Since then historians have produced almost as many books about New England as there were English colonial residents, as Edmund Morgan famously joked. They have reconstructed the compelling narrative of the Puritan migration, the complexity of the English immigrants rich religious and intellectual life, and the intricacies of the society and innovative economy they helped create. Many of these works stressed the uniqueness of New England culture and sought there the origins of American exceptionalism. With a few notable exceptions, though, the history of slavery in general and of Indian slavery in particular remains stubbornly absent from these narratives. We still know more about the relatively few Euro-American captives among the Indians than we do about the thousands of Native Americans who served European masters. This absence is all the more surprising because Indian slavery intersects with some of the central themes of New England and indeed American history: the development of the colonial economy; the creation of legal codes; the motives behind the evangelization of Indians; the core role of households in shaping colonial society and culture; the causes and consequences of warfare with indigenous groups and imperial rivals; and the changing imperial relationship with England. Including Indian servants and slaves in the story helps illuminate all these subjects.
Within the past decade several historians have explored the phenomenon of Indian slavery in New Spain, New France, and the English American Southeast, but colonists in New England crafted regionally distinct practices.slavery, nor did the colonial setting prompt identical strategies. They made conscious decisions to exploit local Indians as a labor force.
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