Israel - Democratic enlightenment : philosophy, revolution, and human rights 1750-1790

DEMOCRATIC ENLIGHTENMENT

Philosophy, Revolution, and Human Rights 17501790

JONATHAN ISRAEL

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Jonathan Israel 2011

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First Published 2011

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ISBN 9780199548200

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During the years I have spent working on this third volume of my Enlightenment series, I have benefited so extensively from discussion about the Enlightenment in its many aspects with colleagueshistorians, philosophers, and social scientistsaround the world that it would make little sense simply to present a long list of them here. To those who have helped me most to correct errors and advance my understanding of the numerous themes and aspects where I have profited from the expertise of others, I have repeatedly spoken of my sense of debt and obligation. I would simply like to add here that I am immensely grateful for all the stimulation and help that resulted from all this discussion and sing the praises, as many of them would wish to too, in particular of three splendid centres for research and debate where the largest amounts of this process of comparing notes went on. For training in informed as well as independent critical thinking about society, politics, the democratic freedoms, and the uses of knowledge, the humanities surpass everything else by far, and in this uncomprehending era when the humanities are in retreat in so many higher education systems around the world there is nothing to beat the international research institutes for advancing what is best in the humanities.

Without the immense advantage of having been based at the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton, during the period on which I worked on this volume not only would it lack much of whatever strength it has but it would almost certainly never have been attempted at all. Neither the time, nor the scholarly resources, nor the debates, nor the cross-disciplinary stimulation would have been available to anything like the necessary extent. The several months that I spent at the NIAS (Netherlands Institute for Advanced Study), the Dutch equivalent of the Princeton Institute, were also invaluable in this respect as were the months I worked in Oxford based at Corpus Christi College. It is to these three centres, above all the Princeton Institute, that I owe my overriding debt. Further, I would like to add a hearty word of thanks to all the many librarians in libraries in Europe and both Americas that assisted with this vast task.

The Birth-place of la nouvelle philosophie. Diderot and his circle always regarded the nouvelle philosophie as a group effort and the Paris cafes such as the Caf Procope as its cradle. (By courtesy of the Muse Carnavalet, Paris / Roger-Viollet/The Image Works)

The Amsterdam Book-Shop of Hermanus de Wit in 1763, engraving by Renier Vinkeles. (By courtesy of Roger-Viollet/The Image Works)

Denis Diderot (171384). Portrait by Dimitri Levitzky made in 1773. (By courtesy of the Muse dart et dhistoire Ville de Genve)

The Paris Salon of Madam Geoffrin: a reading of a play by Voltaire in 1755. Painting by Anicet Charles Gabriel Lemonnier. (By courtesy of the Runion des Muses Nationaux/Art Resource, NY)

Benedict de Spinoza (163277). Anonymous portrait. (By courtesy of the Herzog August Bibliothek, Wolfenbttel)

Paul-Henri Thiry, Baron dHolbach (172389). Portrait by Luis Carrogis Carmontelle. (By courtesy of the Runion des Muses Nationaux/Art Resources, NY)

David Hume (171176). Portrait by Allan Ramsey. (By courtesy of the Scottish National Portrait Gallery)

Adam Ferguson (17231816). Portrait by Sir Joshua Reynolds. (By courtesy of the Scottish National Portrait Gallery)

Adam Smith (172390). Portrait by unknown artist. (By courtesy of the Scottish National Portrait Gallery)

The Coterie of Milan (1776) showing from left to right Alessandro Verri (seated), G.B. Biffi (standing), Cesare Beccaria (reading), L. Lambertenghi and Pietro Verri. Painting by Antonio Perego. (By courtesy of the Collezione Sormani Verri, Milan)

The Declaration of Independence, 4 July 1776. Painting by John Trumbull. (By courtesy of the Yale University Art Gallery/Art Resource, NY)

Europe supported by Africa and America by William Blake of 1796. The female figures wear gold bands around their upper arms symbolizing their valuable but enslaved support. (By courtesy of the Victoria and Albert Museum)

The Negro Revenged depicting black defiance, engraving by Henry Fuseli illustrating an abolitionist ballad by William Cowper composed in 1788. (By courtesy of the Victoria and Albert Museum)

Claude-Adrien Helvtius (171571) portrait by Michel Vanloo. (By courtesy of a private collection)

Anne-Catherine, Madame de Helvtius (17221800) portrait by Michel Vanloo. (By courtesy of a private collection)

Armed Clashes between Democrats and anti-Democrats in Rotterdam, 1784. (By courtesy of the Atlas van Stolk, Rotterdam)

Mary Wollstonecraft. Portrait by John Opie of c.1797. (By courtesy of the National Portrait Gallery, London)

Jacques-Pierre Brissot (de Warville) (175493). (By courtesy of Roger-Viollet/The Image Works)

Marie-Jean-Antoine-Nicolas de Caritat, marquis de Condorcet (174394)

Anarcharsis Cloots (175594). (By courtesy of the Runion des Muses Nationaux/Art Resources, NY)

Ludwig Wekhrlin (173992), radical journalist. Engraving by A. W. Kfher of 1788.

The French Revolution commences: The Tennis Court Oath June 1789. Painting by Jacques-Louis David. (By courtesy of Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY)