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Peter W. R Beaumont Constantinos Soutis - The Structural Integrity of Carbon Fiber Composites: Fifty Years of Progress and Achievement of the Science, Development, and Applications

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Peter W. R Beaumont Constantinos Soutis The Structural Integrity of Carbon Fiber Composites: Fifty Years of Progress and Achievement of the Science, Development, and Applications
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This book brings together a diverse compilation of inter-disciplinary chapters on fundamental aspects of carbon fiber composite materials and multi-functional composite structures: including synthesis, characterization, and evaluation from the nano-structure to structure meters in length. The content and focus of contributions under the umbrella of structural integrity of composite materials embraces topics at the forefront of composite materials science and technology, the disciplines of mechanics, and development of a new predictive design methodology of the safe operation of engineering structures from cradle to grave. Multi-authored papers on multi-scale modelling of problems in material design and predicting the safe performance of engineering structure illustrate the inter-disciplinary nature of the subject. The book examines topics such as Stochastic micro-mechanics theory and application for advanced composite systems Construction of the evaluation process for structural integrity of material and structure Nano- and meso-mechanics modelling of structure evolution during the accumulation of damage Statistical meso-mechanics of composite materials Hierarchical analysis including age-aware, high-fidelity simulation and virtual mechanical testing of composite structures right up to the point of failure. The volume is ideal for scientists, engineers, and students interested in carbon fiber composite materials, and other composite material systems.;Part I -- 1 50 years of carbon fibre 60 years in composite materials -- 2 But how can we make something useful out of black string? The development of carbon fibre composites manufacturing 1965-2015 -- 3 Boron Fiber to Carbon Fiber -- 4 Serendipity in Carbon Fibres Interfaces and Interphases in Composites -- Part II -- Nano-engineered hierarchical carbon fibres and their composites preparation, properties, and multi-functionalities -- 5 Nano-engineered carbon fibre reinforced composites challenges and opportunities -- 6 A Nano-Micro-Macro Multi-Scale Model for Progressive Failure Prediction in Advanced Composites -- 7 Carbon fibre reinforced polymer laminates with nanofiller enhanced multi-functionality -- 8 Analysis models for polymer composites across different length scales -- 9 Analysis models for polymer composites across different length scales -- Part III -- 10 Microscale characterization techniques of Fibre Reinforced Polymers -- 11 Fibre Distribution and the Process Property Dilemma -- 12 Analysis of defect developments in composite forming -- Part IV -- 13 Deformation Mechanisms of Carbon Fibres and Carbon Fibre Composites -- 14 Micromechanical evidences on inter-fibre failure of composites -- 15 Progressive Damage in Fibre-Reinforced Composites Towards more Accurate and Efficient Computational Modelling and Analysis -- 16 Predicting properties of undamaged and damaged carbon fibre reinforced composites -- Part V -- 17 Composites Toughen up! -- 18 Slow cracking in composite materials catastrophic fracture of composite structures -- 19 Finite fracture mechanics a useful tool to analyze cracking mechanisms in composite materials -- 20 Traction-separation relations in delamination of layered carbon-epoxy composites under monotonic loads Experiments and Modeling -- 21 Damage and failure analysis of bolted joints in composite laminates -- 22 City Cars made from Composites -- Part VI -- 23 A virtual testing approach for laminated composites based on micromechanics -- 24 Virtual testing of composite structures Progress and challenges in predicting damage, residual strength and crashworthiness -- 25 Contribution of virtual simulation to industrialisation of carbon fiber reinforced polymer composites for manufacturing processes and mechanical performance -- Part VII -- 26 Multi scale progressive failure modeling from Nano-structured carbon fibers to textile composites -- 27 Textile Structural Composites -- from 3-D to 1-D fiber architecture -- 28 Experimental and Multiscale Numerical Studies of Woven Fabric Carbon Composite Cylinder Subjected to Internal Pressure Loading -- Part VIII -- 29 Fatigue of 2D and 3D carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer matrix composites and of a unitized polymer/ceramic matrix composite at elevated temperature -- 30 Carbon Fibers in Tribo-Composites.

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Part I
Part I
Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2017
Peter W. R Beaumont , Constantinos Soutis and Alma Hodzic (eds.) The Structural Integrity of Carbon Fiber Composites 10.1007/978-3-319-46120-5_1
1. 50 Years in Carbon Fibre, 60 Years in Composites
Robert D. Adams 1, 2
(1)
Department of Engineering Science, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
(2)
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
Robert D. Adams Visiting Professor, Emeritus Professor of Applied Mechanics
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I am sure someone must have said this before, but in my experience there is nothing like a well-designed experiment to ruin a perfectly good theory.
1.1 A Perspective: 19562016
Early postwar cars were, to say the least, not well made. After less than 10 years, there were serious problems with paint defects and corrosion. Most private owners could not afford to take the car to a garage so they chose to do their own repairs. Paintwork was relatively easy to deal with, but where the steel was corroded completely through, the only solution was welding and an expensive garage repair. But then, in the mid-1950s, car accessory firms began to market glass fibre repair kits, using woven or random glass fibre mat and a polyester resin. Thus, it was that even schoolchildren could repair a car with GRP. The resin had a catalyst and a hardener that had to get mixed accurately and thoroughly and then applied briskly before the resin began to gel. First, the surfaces had to be cleaned and dried to bare metal, any moisture providing a sure recipe for disaster. On the other hand, any form of hand-applied rust-preventing chemicals onto the bare metal was faith in untried chemistry and usually led to failure of the bond quite quickly. The second lesson was to mix the polyester ingredients quickly and accurately. Third, the glass fibre mat had to be impregnated thoroughly before the mixture began to gel. Then, after the GRP had hardened, it could be smoothed with a grinder and wet and dry emery paper prior to painting. And here was the fourth lesson; the system was suitable for painting when a film of water covered the surface. This, of course, we know now as the water break test.
In 1961, the Royal Aircraft Establishment at Farnborough, UK, was interested in using filament wound glass fibre composites for rocket motors. At that time, and under the supervision of Dr W. G. Wood in the Department of Mechanical Engineering at the Imperial College, Adams [] refer to Tsai, Thielmann, and Adams to give the correct time trace.
In the early 1960s, Watt, Philipps, Johnson and colleagues at RAE Farnborough found that by heating and stretching polyacrylonitrile (PAN) fibres, they could make high modulus (200500 GPa) and high-strength (12 Gpa) carbon fibres. While glass fibres were strong, Their Youngs modulus was only 70 GPa. These new carbon fibres opened new and amazing opportunities. There was a lot of excitement in the industry and academia about these new fibres. Farnborough, Rolls-Royce, Courtaulds and Morgan Crucible all made their own version of carbon fibres. Fibres were given to academics, research establishments and industry to advance the science and engineering of carbon fibre composites. Rolls-Royce produced the fan blades shown in Fig. for their new RB 211 three-shaft gas turbine. Philipps and Watt were very generous to the academia. They not only made their new fibres available but also gave advice on how they could be impregnated with epoxy or polyester resin to make carbon fibre-reinforced composites.
Fig 11 a RB 211 engine showing the fan blades b and c blade and - photo 1
Fig. 1.1
( a ) RB 211 engine showing the fan blades, ( b and c ) blade and detail of the root fixing [( b and c ) Courtesy of the Farnborough Air Sciences Trust Museum]
Unidirectional CFRP specimens were made using a Bakelite 17749 polyester resin system mixed 100:2:2 with a catalyst and an accelerator using Lesley Philipps leaky mould technique. This Bakelite system had a slow reacting chemistry to give time for laminators to do what they had to. The specimens were 215 mm long, 12.7 mm wide and 12.7 mm, for torsion, or 2.54 mm, for flexure, thick (the astute will have noticed the obvious conversion from inches to mm). In effect, alternate layers of resin and fibre were laid in the mould, taking care not to introduce much air and sucking out any obvious bubbles with a hypodermic syringe. In order to achieve about 50% volume fraction, the quantities had to be precisely determined. A plunger was then carefully lowered onto the resin/fibre mixture, and force was used to compress it until resin leaked out at the sides. The resin was allowed to gel at room temperature (34 h) and the specimen was then cured, under pressure, at 100 C for 45 h. Plates were made 250 mm square and 2.5 mm thick. Care had to be taken that the fibres stayed where they were wanted and were not displaced by movement of the resin towards the edges. Flat plates could be observed visually, but Rolls-Royce had more of a problem with their thick and twisted RB 211 fan blades. To overcome this, their sheets of dry carbon fibre were stitched about every 10 cm. Because carbon fibres are almost transparent to X-rays, Rolls-Royce incorporated glass fibres (which are not X-ray transparent) so that they could monitor fibre alignment in the cured blades. Figure shows a CFRP blade and blades assembled in the RB 211 engine; the man standing in the picture gives the scale of the blades and engine.
The best methods of manufacturing composites as specimens for research as well as industrial applications (as led by Rolls-Royce) were being actively pursued. Gelation could be observed by touching the leaked-out resin with a matchstick. This was important because if the mould was closed when the resin was liquid, the fibres would be displaced. If the mould was closed when the resin had reached a late stage of gelation, it was impossible to squeeze out the air bubbles, so the plate would contain a lot of voids. Visual inspection showed that some specimens were good, some bad. Sometimes, the fibres were not straight, sometimes there was resin starvation. The learning curve was still steep. With glass fibres, bubbles of air could be seen; carbon specimens must also have contained bubbles, but these could not be seen. So how could the quality of the CFRP be assessed? The main objective at this stage was to make specimens for measuring damping and the elastic modulus. This required straight fibres (unidirectional material was used at this stage) with no voids and a controlled volume fraction. It was noted that visually poor specimens had a lower E modulus and higher damping than good specimens. But as only good material was wanted, most of the defective material was discarded.
In about 1970, there was an important breakthrough. Sheets of fibre could now be obtained which were pre-impregnated with resin which was just sufficiently cured so as to remain holding the fibres in place between paper sheets which had been coated with a release agent. It was now possible to make laminated plates with fibres in any direction. Initially, there was an excess of resin which had to be squeezed out as in the original leaky mould technique, but soon the resin/fibre proportions were carefully controlled so that plates could be made without any squeeze out.
Of course, there had to be care in the symmetry of the laid-up laminae, or the cured sheet would twist or bend (or both) when released from the mould. This is because of the low coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) in the fibre direction but a far from zero CTE in the transverse direction. When the resin is liquid or soft, there is a stress-free condition. If cure takes place at room temperature, only resin cure shrinkage can cause any residual stresses. But since most cure cycles involve cure in excess of 100 C and often approaching 200 C, significant stresses will be built in to the laminate when it is cooled. A suitably symmetric laminate will not twist or bend, but the stresses between the laminae are there nonetheless. These interply laminate stresses are always present in composites as the highly cross-linked cured resins will have little or no creep. Thermal cycling, such as will occur with an aircraft, will induce fatigue stresses between the plies. The laws of physics do not change .
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