Sauvagnargues - Decision-making in crisis situations: research and innovation for optimal training

Series Editor

Jean-Charles Pomerol

Edited by

Sophie Sauvagnargues

First published 2018 in Great Britain and the United States by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms and licenses issued by the CLA. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside these terms should be sent to the publishers at the undermentioned address:

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ISTE Ltd 2018

The rights of Sophie Sauvagnargues to be identified as the author of this work have been asserted by her in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

Library of Congress Control Number: 2018953112

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN 978-1-78630-343-1

Whether environmental, economic, social, health or humanitarian, a crisis is a complex phenomenon that requires a management strategy specific to each situation. A crisis arises after a sudden and unexpected triggering event, and is characterized by rapid changes that require optimal cooperation between various participants who are faced with a stressful situation. How the crisis is managed impacts how it unfolds.

It is therefore a matter of anticipating events and making decisions, most of which are urgent and crucial, and may need to be made on the basis of contradictory requirements, while facing a context of structural disruption. The complexities of managing a crisis situation can be seen as a set of factors aimed at combating crises and reducing the actual damage suffered, while aiming to prevent or mitigate the negative effects of the crisis and protect the organisation, managers and/or the industrialist (Coombs et al. 2010).

Decisions are made at different levels: the strategic level corresponds to the description of the aims and objectives set in order to deal with the crisis and concerns the decision-making structures; the tactical level is linked to the organization of field operations with a view to implementing the strategies drawn up; and the operational level executes and implements the resources relating to the organization of field operations. The crisis unit is thus the central instrument in the strategic management of the crisis, essential to any organization. It is both an open place because it is at the crossroads of information and its processing and decision-making, and a closed place which must allow the cell to function without disruption (Heiderich 2010).

In the field of major risks, a strategic crisis unit can be municipal, departmental, prefectoral, national or that of an industrial company. It unites human resources, computing and communication resources, individual or collective equipment and specific documentation relating to emergency management.

The realization of the missions assigned to a crisis unit, and anticipating and making decisions, requires a multitude of competences. Flcks model (Flck 2001) proposes four types of combined skills to react to the different professional situations encountered: technical skills (theoretical knowledge and trades, methods and tools, rules and procedures, know-how linked to experience), organizational skills (spatio-temporal organization and management of information flows), relational and social skills (oral and written expression skills, interpersonal skills, managerial and network skills) and adaptation skills (ability to adjust to the situation and its evolution over time and to transfer acquired know-how).

The acquisition and preservation of these skills is complex, all the more so when, outside of a crisis situation, it is not the main goal or function of the people concerned. The crisis unit is subject to high levels of stress as well as to various biases impacting its members in their representation and decision-making. The difficulties encountered by decision-makers in crisis cells in terms of decision-making and collective behavior necessitate training exercises to prepare them to face this type of situation. The implementation of simulation exercises, the development of crisis scenarios outside the framework, the coordination of an even greater number of actors as well as a real line of conduct for crisis units, priorities in crisis management and in particular in terms of training are at the heart of concerns (Lagadec 2012).

The purpose of this book is to specifically focus on decision-making training through crisis simulation. The aim is essentially educational, methodological and practical, and provides a concise review of the major knowledge, methods and innovative tools in this field.

This book is composed of eight chapters:

• The first chapter, Concepts, Tools and Methods for Crisis Management Training, provides an overview of the problem of crisis management training. The authors present the characteristics of the crisis unit before discussing the various aspects of crisis management training, including stress simulations, in detail.
• The second chapter, Towards A Serious Game Within the Frame of Major Crisis Simulations for Decision-makers: How Do We Connect the DOTs?, proposes the development of a semi-virtual training environment to ensure effective learning, mainly through improved experience, engagement and immersion, and realism. Degrees Of Training (DOTs) are organized into general, intermediate and specific skills to be involved in each crisis scenario.
• The third chapter, Improving Crisis Exercises and Managers Skills through the Development of Scenario Design, discusses the interest in improving the scripting phase of an exercise model in order to improve crisis management training and experiential learning.
• The fourth chapter, Elaboration of Tools to Facilitate the Scenario Development of Crisis Management Training, discusses how to develop a scenario which is credible, educational and interactive, so as to encourage trainees to be immersed in a situation which seems realistic and that allows them to acquire knowledge, skills and experience.
• The fifth chapter, How Can We Evaluate the Participants of a Crisis Management Training Exercise, presents an innovative methodology of evaluation and debriefing facilitation, resulting from the observation of the limits of the current training in evaluation and debriefing.
• The sixth chapter, Managing the Game Within Crisis Exercises, focuses on the playful dynamics at work when a group of trainees agree to consider seriously, for a few hours, that they will together role-play a virtual crisis situation. It particularly takes into account the key components of Ludicity, the manifestations of Ludicity, and how to manage Ludicity.
• The seventh chapter, Digital Training for Authorities: What is the Best Way to Communicate During a Crisis?, proposes to standardize some of the analyses performed on crisis management to produce a comprehensive report on the quality of the crisis communication delivered. This report may be produced following a real situation or during an emergency response drill.