Russell A. Poldrack - Hard to Break: Why Our Brains Make Habits Stick
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The neuroscience of why bad habits are so hard to breakand how evidence-based strategies can help us change our behavior more effectively
We all have habits wed like to break, but for many of us it can be nearly impossible to do so. There is a good reason for this: the brain is a habit-building machine. In Hard to Break, leading neuroscientist Russell Poldrack provides an engaging and authoritative account of the science of how habits are built in the brain, why they are so hard to break, and how evidence-based strategies may help us change unwanted behaviors.
Hard to Break offers a clear-eyed tour of what neuroscience tells us about habit change and debunks easy fixes that arent backed by science. It explains how dopamine is essential for building habits and how the battle between habits and intentional goal-directed behaviors reflects a competition between different brain systems. Along the way, we learn how cues trigger habits; why we should make rules, not decisions; how the stimuli of the modern world hijack the brains habit machinery and lead to drug abuse and other addictions; and how neuroscience may one day enable us to hack our habits. Shifting from the individual to society, the book also discusses the massive habit changes that will be needed to address the biggest challenges of our time.
Moving beyond the hype to offer a deeper understanding of the biology of habits in the brain, Hard to Break reveals how we might be able to make the changes we desireand why we should have greater empathy with ourselves and others who struggle to do so.
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HARD TO BREAK
Hard to Break
WHY OUR BRAINS MAKE HABITS STICK
RUSSELL A. POLDRACK
PRINCETON UNIVERSITY PRESS
PRINCETON & OXFORD
Copyright 2021 by Princeton University Press
Requests for permission to reproduce material from this work should be sent to
Published by Princeton University Press
41 William Street, Princeton, New Jersey 08540
6 Oxford Street, Woodstock, Oxfordshire OX20 1TR
press.princeton.edu
All Rights Reserved
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Poldrack, Russell A., author.
Title: Hard to break: why our brains make habits stick / Russell A. Poldrack.
Description: 1st. | Princeton: Princeton University Press, [2021] | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2020049215 (print) | LCCN 2020049216 (ebook) | ISBN 9780691194325 (hardback) | ISBN 9780691219837 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Habit. | Human behavior. | Cognitive psychology. | Neurosciences.
Classification: LCC BF335.P65 2021 (print) | LCC BF335 (ebook) | DDC 152.3/3dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020049215
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020049216
Version 1.0
British Library Cataloging-in-Publication Data is available
Editorial: Hallie Stebbins and Kristen Hop
Production Editorial: Natalie Baan
Jacket Design: Amanda Weiss
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An operant conditioning chamber (or Skinner box)
A schematic for understanding the various factors that go into a choice
MRI scan of the authors brain
An example of mirror-reversed text
A schematic of the different parts of the basal ganglia, and a graphic that shows the position of the different portions of the striatum
A map of basal ganglia circuitry, showing direct and indirect pathways
Image depicting neurons that produce dopamine within the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc) and the ventral tegmental area (VTA), with their outputs sent widely across the brain, particularly to the striatum
A schematic of the three-factor plasticity rule
The demonstration of reward prediction error signaling by dopamine neurons
A photo of a plus maze and a schematic of training and testing in Packards experiment
An example of a reinforcement learning model using slot machines
An example of Daws two-step learning task
A schematic example of a task used to examine the model-free selection of goals
Photographs of Phineas Gages skull and a reconstruction of Gages brain injury
The hierarchy of brain systems, with primary systems, unimodal association regions, and heteromodal association regions, and the prefrontal cortex at the top
A schematic of the oculomotor delayed response task used by Goldman-Rakic
A schematic of the inverted-U relationship between arousal and performance, first described by Yerkes and Dodson
Examples of discounting functions for two individuals, one who discounts quickly and the other who discounts more slowly
A summary of active brain regions in 99 published studies that mentioned the stop-signal task in the abstract of their publication
A schematic of the brains stress systems
Relapse curves showing the percentage of people trying to quit various substances who remained abstinent at various points up to one year
The process of consolidation in solidifying memories, and the blocking of reconsolidation that can result in a loss of memory
Excitatory and inhibitory neurons
Controlling the brain with light
Calcium imaging
DREADDs
Imaging white matter using diffusion-weighted imaging
Genome-wide association studies
Brain stimulation
Why small studies can be problematic
Gene regulation and epigenetics
Positron emission tomography
Combining research studies using meta-analysis
ID FIRST LIKE to thank several colleagues who were kind enough to read and provide detailed comments on an early draft of the entire book or large sections of it: Peter Bandettini, Aaron Blaisdell, Julia Haas, David Jentsch, Colin Klein, Trevor Robbins, and Luke Stoeckel. Their honest and detailed feedback was crucial in helping me to reorganize the book in a more effective manner and to get the science right in areas where I am less expert.
I would also like to thank a number of colleagues and friends for commenting on early drafts of sections of the book, answering technical questions or providing useful discussion: Amy Arnsten, Joshua Berke, Patrick Bissett, Kyle Burger, Fiery Cushman, Nathaniel Daw, Angela Duckworth, Paul Fletcher, David Glanzman, Kevin Hall, Rob Malenka, Earl Miller, Lisbeth Nielsen, Amy Orben, Paul Phillips, James Proud, Bill Savoie, Tom Schonberg, Katerina Semendeferi, Mac Shine, Eric Stice, Dan Tranel, Uku Vainik, Kate Wassum, and David Zald.
My editor at Princeton University Press, Hallie Stebbins, also deserves special thanks. Her input on multiple drafts helped me craft a book that is much better than it would have otherwise been.
My greatest thanks go to my wife, Jennifer Ott, who has put up with my workaholism for many more years than either of us would like to admit. Her love and support has given me the gumption to keep going even when the words refused to flow.
WHY WE GET STUCK
THINK FOR A MOMENT about your morning routine. Mine involves walking downstairs from my bedroom, turning on the espresso machine, putting together my breakfast (plain yogurt, blueberries, and nuts), and firing up my laptop to check email, social media, and news. What is so remarkable is that we can perform these kinds of routines without actually thinking about what we are doingvery rarely do I actually entertain conscious thoughts like now I need to take out a spoon and scoop the yogurt into the bowl or now I need to walk from the refrigerator to the counter. When people think of habits, they often jump immediately to bad habits, like smoking, drinking, or overeating, or good habits, like exercise or brushing our teeth. However, these are just the visible tip of a huge iceberg of habits that each of us has. And if you think a bit about what life would be like without them, its pretty clear that we would quickly succumb to decision paralysis.
In his moving book The Emperor of All Maladies: A Biography of Cancer, Siddhartha Mukherjee describes how we should not think of cancer as something separate from our bodies, because in fact it is a reflection of exactly the biological functions that keep us alive:
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