David Fischer - Safeguarding the Atom: A Critical Appraisal
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Safeguards play a key role in verifying the effectiveness of restraints on the spread of nuclear weapons. Originally published in 1985, this book is a study of the safeguards system of the International Atomic Energy Agency, an important element of the non-proliferation regime. It breaks new ground by focusing on the politics of safeguards, especially the political problems of the IAEA and of the day-to-day application of safeguards. It contains a critical appraisal and proposals for ways of improving existing procedures, and of adapting them to the political and technological changes of recent years.Safeguarding the Atom gives an analysis of the following questions:What are IAEA safeguards and how do they work?How effective are they?How can they be reinforced?What sanctions can be imposed in the event of non-compliance?IAEA safeguards represent the worlds first and so far only attempt to verify an arms control agreement by systematic on-site inspection, and their applicability to other arms control measures is examined.
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ROUTLEDGE LIBRARY EDITIONS: NUCLEAR SECURITY
Volume 12
SAFEGUARDING THE ATOM
First published in 1985 by Taylor & Francis Ltd
This edition first published in 2021
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
1985 Stockholm International Peace Research Institute
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN: 978-0-367-50682-7 (Set)
ISBN: 978-1-00-309763-1 (Set) (ebk)
ISBN: 978-0-367-51459-4 (Volume 12) (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-00-305458-0 (Volume 12) (ebk)
Publishers Note
The publisher has gone to great lengths to ensure the quality of this reprint but points out that some imperfections in the original copies may be apparent.
Disclaimer
The publisher has made every effort to trace copyright holders and would welcome correspondence from those they have been unable to trace.
Safeguarding the Atom:
A Critical Appraisal
A Critical Appraisal
sipri
Stockholm International Peace Research Institute
SIPRI is an independent institute for research into problems of peace and conflict, especially those of arms control and disarmament. It was established in 1966 to commemorate Swedens 150 years of unbroken peace.
The institute is financed by the Swedish Parliament. The staff, the Governing Board and the Scientific Council are international.
The Board is not responsible for the views expressed in the publications of the Institute.
Governing Board
Rolf Bjornerstedt, Chairman (Sweden)
Egon Bahr (FR Germany)
Francesco Calogero (Italy)
Tim Greve (Norway)
Max Jakobson (Finland)
Karlheinz Lohs (German Democratic Republic)
Emma Rothschild (United Kingdom)
The Director
Director
Frank Blackaby (United Kingdom)
sipri
Stockholm International Peace Research Institute
Pipers Vg 28, S-171 73 Solna, Sweden
Cable: Peaceresearch Stockholm
Telephone: 08-55 97 00
Safeguarding the Atom:
A Critical Appraisal
David Fischer and Paul Szasz
Edited by Jozef Goldblat
Edited by Jozef Goldblat
sipri
Stockholm International Peace Research Institute
- UK Taylor & Francis Ltd, 4 John St, London WC1N 2ET
- USA Taylor & Francis Inc., 232 Cherry St, Philadelphia, PA 19106-1906
Copyright SIPRI 1985
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by anymeans, electronic, electrostatic, magnetic tape, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of thecopyright owner and publishers.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Fischer, David
Safeguarding the Atom: A Critical Appraisal
1. Nuclear Arms Control
I. Title. II. Fzasz, Paul III. Goldblat, Jozef
IV. Stockholm International Peace Research Institute
327.74 JX1974.7
ISBN 0-85066-306-7
Cover design by Malvern Lumsden
Typeset by Georgia Origination, Liverpool Printed in Great Britain by Taylor & Francis (Printers) Ltd, Basingstoke, Hants.
Since the entry into force of the Non-Proliferation Treaty, the nuclear weapon powers have exercised virtually no restraint in their nuclear weapon policies: they have pressed ahead unremittingly with new technologies in warheads and delivery systems. Among the non-nuclear weapon states the story is a different one: things have gone better than many people feared. In the late 1950s and early 1960s there were a number of informed predictions that, by the mid-1980s, the nuclear weapon states would number between 15 and 25. This has not happened. The non-proliferation regime hasso farheld remarkably well.
This book is a study of one element in that regimethe safeguards system of the International Atomic Energy Agency. SIPRI published a monograph on safeguards 10 years ago. It was then among the very few publications which dealt with this subject comprehensively (SIPRI, Safeguards Against Nuclear Proliferation (MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, and Almqvist & Wiksell, Stockholm, 1975). In the past 10 years there have been many developments in the system. The present book is an updated review.
This book is not simply descriptive. It contains a critical appraisal and proposals for ways of improving existing procedures, and adapting them to the political and technological changes of recent years. It is written for the informed layman as well as for the specialist: the safeguards system has many points of interest for arms control in general and, in particular, for the verification of compliance.
The main author is David Fischer, a former high official of the IAEA. Paul Szasz, formerly a legal and safeguards officer of the IAEA and now a Director in the UN Office of Legal Affairs, describes the political and legal aspects of sanctions for non-compliance with the safeguards obligations. The conclusions and recommendations have been prepared by SIPRI, which bears sole responsibility for them.
The book was edited by Jozef Goldblat, senior researcher at SIPRI, who is in charge of the arms control and disarmament programme. We are grateful to Billie Bielckus for her expert editing work.
Frank Blackaby
January 1985 Director
aThe status of Brazil is uncertain.
Contents
David Fischer
Paul Szasz
- i
- ii
- vi
Guide
The objective of nuclear safeguards is to deter the diversion of nuclear material from peaceful activities to military purposes by the risk of early detection. But the deterrent role of safeguards is secondary to that of building confidence between nations by demonstrating that states which have undertaken not to acquire nuclear weapons abide by their undertakings.
Safeguards were in fact introduced before the 1968 Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT), but now their future is to a great extent linked to that of the NPT. Indeed, they play a key role in verifying the effectiveness of restraints on the spread of nuclear weapons.
The detailed review of international safeguards which is made in this book reveals a series of shortcomings, both avoidable and unavoidable. Avoidable shortcomings can be remedied in part by action of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), but chiefly by action of the states themselves. The most serious limitation lies in the fact that not all non-nuclear weapon states have accepted comprehensive control of their nuclear activities. Five or six states that have not done so operate unsafeguarded plants that can make material directly useable in nuclear weapons; some of these states are highly influential in the world community. This is a disturbing situation because where safeguards stop the risks of proliferation begin.
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