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Shun-ichi Amari - Information Geometry and Its Applications

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Shun-ichi Amari Information Geometry and Its Applications
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This is the first comprehensive book on information geometry, written by the founder of the field. It begins with an elementary introduction to dualistic geometry and proceeds to a wide range of applications, covering information science, engineering, and neuroscience. It consists of four parts, which on the whole can be read independently. A manifold with a divergence function is first introduced, leading directly to dualistic structure, the heart of information geometry. This part (Part I) can be apprehended without any knowledge of differential geometry. An intuitive explanation of modern differential geometry then follows in Part II, although the book is for the most part understandable without modern differential geometry. Information geometry of statistical inference, including time series analysis and semiparametric estimation (the NeymanScott problem), is demonstrated concisely in Part III. Applications addressed in Part IV include hot current topics in machine learning, signal processing, optimization, and neural networks. The book is interdisciplinary, connecting mathematics, information sciences, physics, and neurosciences, inviting readers to a new world of information and geometry. This book is highly recommended to graduate students and researchers who seek new mathematical methods and tools useful in their own fields.

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Part I
Geometry of Divergence Functions: Dually Flat Riemannian Structure
Springer Japan 2016
Shun-ichi Amari Information Geometry and Its Applications Applied Mathematical Sciences 10.1007/978-4-431-55978-8_1
1. Manifold, Divergence and Dually Flat Structure
Shun-ichi Amari 1
(1)
Brain Science Institute, RIKEN, Wako, Saitama, Japan
Shun-ichi Amari
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The present chapter begins with a manifold and a coordinate system within it. Then, a divergence between two points is defined. We use an intuitive style of explanation for manifolds, followed by typical examples. A divergence represents a degree of separation of two points, but it is not a distance since it is not symmetric with respect to the two points. Here is the origin of dually coupled asymmetry, leading us to a dual world. When a divergence is derived from a convex function in the form of the Bregman divergence, two affine structures are induced in the manifold. They are dually coupled via the Legendre transformation. Thus, a convex function provides a manifold with a dually flat affine structure in addition to a Riemannian metric derived from it. The dually flat structure plays a pivotal role in information geometry, as is shown in the generalized Pythagorean theorem. The dually flat structure is a special case of Riemannian geometry equipped with non-flat dual affine connections, which will be studied in Part II.
1.1 Manifolds
1.1.1 Manifold and Coordinate Systems
An n -dimensional manifold M is a set of points such that each point has n -dimensional extensions in its neighborhood. That is, such a neighborhood is topologically equivalent to an n -dimensional Euclidean space. Intuitively speaking, a manifold is a deformed Euclidean space, like a curved surface in the two-dimensional case. But it may have a different global topology. A sphere is an example which is locally equivalent to a two-dimensional Euclidean space, but is curved and has a different global topology because it is compact (bounded and closed).
Since a manifold M is locally equivalent to an n -dimensional Euclidean space Information Geometry and Its Applications - image 1 , we can introduce a local coordinate system
Information Geometry and Its Applications - image 2
(1.1)
composed of n components Picture 3 such that each point is uniquely specified by its coordinates Picture 4 in a neighborhood. See Fig. for the two-dimensional case. Since a manifold may have a topology different from a Euclidean space, in general we need more than one coordinate neighborhood and coordinate system to cover all the points of a manifold.
Fig 11 Manifold M and coordinate system is a two-dimensional Euclidean - photo 5
Fig. 1.1
Manifold M and coordinate system Picture 6 . Information Geometry and Its Applications - image 7 is a two-dimensional Euclidean space
The coordinate system is not unique even in a coordinate neighborhood, and there are many coordinate systems. Let Information Geometry and Its Applications - image 8 be another coordinate system. When a point Picture 9 is represented in two coordinate systems Information Geometry and Its Applications - image 10 and Information Geometry and Its Applications - image 11 , there is a one-to-one correspondence between them and we have relations
Information Geometry and Its Applications - image 12
(1.2)
Information Geometry and Its Applications - image 13
(1.3)
where Picture 14 and are mutually inverse vector-valued functions They are a coordinate - photo 15 are mutually inverse vector-valued functions. They are a coordinate transformation and its inverse transformation. We usually assume that (
Fig 12 Cartesian coordinate system and polar coordinate system in - photo 16
Fig. 1.2
Cartesian coordinate system Picture 17 and polar coordinate system Picture 18 in Picture 19
1.1.2 Examples of Manifolds
A. Euclidean Space
Consider a two-dimensional Euclidean space, which is a flat plane. It is convenient to use an orthonormal Cartesian coordinate system Picture 20 . A polar coordinate system Picture 21 is sometimes used, where r is the radius and is the angle of a point from one axis see Fig The coordinate - photo 22 is the angle of a point from one axis (see Fig. ). The coordinate transformation between them is given by
14 15 The transformation is analytic except for the origin B - photo 23
(1.4)
15 The transformation is analytic except for the origin B Sphere A - photo 24
(1.5)
The transformation is analytic except for the origin.
B. Sphere
A sphere is the surface of a three-dimensional ball. The surface of the earth is regarded as a sphere, where each point has a two-dimensional neighborhood, so that we can draw a local geographic map on a flat sheet. The pair of latitude and longitude gives a local coordinate system. However, a sphere is topologically different from a Euclidean space and it cannot be covered by one coordinate system. At least two coordinate systems are required to cover it. If we delete one point, say the north pole of the earth, it is topologically equivalent to a Euclidean space. Hence, at least two overlapping coordinate neighborhoods, one including the north pole and the other including the south pole, for example, are necessary and they are sufficient to cover the entire sphere.
C. Manifold of Probability Distributions
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