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Williams - 2019;2002;

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Williams 2019;2002;

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V. 1. Acantharia to Antigens -- v. 2. Antimicrobial agents to Bacterial transcription regulation -- v. 3. Bacteriophage display of combinational antibody libraries to Catalytic RNA -- v. 4. Caudata (Salamanders) to Comparative vertebrate muscle physiology -- v. 5. Complement to DNA-binding enzymes -- v. 6. Dobzhansky, Theodosius to Evolution -- v. 7. Evolutionary developmental biology to Genes -- v. 8. Genetic and physical map correlation to Histamine biosynthesis and function -- v. 9. Histochemical staining to Immunoglobulin purification -- v. 10. Immunohistochemical detection of tissue and cellular antigens to Leiper, Robert Thomson -- v. 11. Leishman, William Boog to Methanogenesis biochemistry -- v. 12. Mexico to Neonatal infectious disease -- v. 13. Nernst, Walther Hermann to Pearson, Karl -- v. 14. Pectic substances to Polymerization dynamics of cytoskeletal filaments -- v. 15. Polyomaviruses to Quorum sensing -- v. 16. Rabies and related diseases to Schwann, Theodor Ambrose Hubert -- v. 17. Scopes trial and fundamentalism in the United States to Sutherland, Earl Wilbur, Jr. -- v. 18. Svedberg, Theodor to Two-hybrid and related systems -- v. 19. Two-photon fluorescence light microscopy to Zygomycota -- v. 20. Index.;An illustrated encyclopedia with articles on agriculture, anatomy, biochemistry, biology, genetics, medicine, and molecular biology.;V. 21. Acanthamoeba castellanii cell culture to Chiroptera (Bats) -- v. 22. Chlorinated hydrocarbon metabolism to Eye anatomy -- v. 23. Fagales (Oak) to Knockout and knock-in animals -- v. 24. Lake ecosystems to Placozoa -- v. 25. Planetary protection to Somitogenesis in vertebrate development -- v. 26. Southern blotting for the analysis of human disease to Zingiberales (Gingers and Bananas) -- V. 27. Abotic stress to Cytotoxicity of aberrant proteins -- v. 28. Death receptors to Genetically modified plants -- v. 29. Genetics and judaism to Membrane rafts and caveolae -- v. 30. Memory: mechanisms other than LTP to Phenotypic and development plasticity in plants -- v. 31. Philosophy of biological classification to Senescence in plants -- v. 32. Sequencing of Rhesus macaque genome and its comparison with genome sequences of human and chimpanzee to Y chromosome evolution.

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Also by Gareth Williams Angel of Death The Story of Smallpox 2010 Paralysed - photo 1

Also by Gareth Williams

Angel of Death: The Story of Smallpox (2010)

Paralysed with Fear: The Story of Polio (2013)

A Monstrous Commotion: The Mysteries of Loch Ness (2015)

with Gema Frhbeck

Obesity: Science to Practice (2009)

with John Pickup

Textbook of Diabetes, editions 13 (19912002)

Handbook of Diabetes, editions 13 (19922002)

UNRAVELLING
THE DOUBLE HELIX

The Lost Heroes of DNA

GARETH WILLIAMS

U NRAVELLING THE D OUBLE H ELIX Pegasus Books Ltd 148 West 37th Street 13th - photo 2

U NRAVELLING THE D OUBLE H ELIX

Pegasus Books Ltd.

148 West 37th Street, 13th Floor

New York, NY 10018

Copyright 2019 by Gareth Williams

First Pegasus Books hardcover edition October 2019

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in whole or in part without written permission from the publisher, except by reviewers who may quote brief excerpts in connection with a review in a newspaper, magazine, or electronic publication; nor may any part of this book be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or other, without written permission from the publisher.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data is available

ISBN: 978-1-64313-215-0

ISBN: 978-1-64313-283-9 (ebook)

Distributed by W. W. Norton & Company, Inc.

With love and thanks to :

Caroline, Tim, Jo and Tessa
For putting up with me while I did another one

Dorothy Strangeways
For giving me the idea over tea in Hartington Grove

Gordon Doc Wright
For helping to keep me afloat in Cambridge, 19714

We all stand on each others shoulders.

Rosalind Franklin, March 1953
On hearing that James Watson and Francis Crick
had deduced the double helical structure of DNA

A science which hesitates to forget its founders is lost.

Alfred North Whitehead, September 1916
Address to the British Association for the Advancement of Science

CONTENTS
1833Robert Brown describes the nucleus in cells of orchids
1866Gregor Mendel publishes Studies of plant hybridisation
1868Friedrich Miescher discovers nuclein (DNA) in pus cells
1878Albrecht Kossel isolates yeast nuclein (later shown to be RNA)
1880Walther Flemming describes nuclear threads made of chromatin during cell division (mitosis) in the salamander
1882Flemming suggests that chromatin and nuclein are identical
1885Kossel extracts two bases, guanine and adenine, from thymus nuclein, followed by thymine (1893), cytosine (1894) and uracil (1900)
1888Wilhelm Waldeyer renames Flemmings threads chromosomes
1889Richard Altmann renames nuclein nucleic acid
1900Mendels work is rediscovered by Carl Correns, Hugo de Vries and Erich von Tschermak
1903Walter Sutton formulates the chromosome theory of inheritance
1904William Bateson begins a pro-Mendel crusade and coins the word genetics
1909Wilhelm Johannsen invents the words gene, genotype and phenotype Phoebus Levene identifies the sugar in yeast nucleic acid (RNA) as ribose
1912Levene proposes that nucleic acids are a small tetranucleotide, containing one of each of the four bases Max von Laue takes the first X-ray photograph of a crystal
1914Lawrence Bragg formulates Braggs Law of X-ray crystallography; with his father William, develops a new crystallography
1915Thomas Hunt Morgan publishes The Mechanism of Mendelian Inheritance , based on mutations in the fruit fly
1927Fred Griffith shows that dead pneumococci bacteria can transform (change the genetic characteristics of) live pneumococci, when injected into living mice
1928Levene and Kossel both claim that genes are made of protein, not nucleic acid
1929Levene identifies the sugar in thymus nucleic acid (DNA) as deoxyribose

Martin Dawson, in Oswald Averys lab at the Rockefeller, confirms Griffiths finding of transformation of pneumococci, also in living mice

1931Dawson and Richard Sia achieve transformation in vitro
1932Lionel Alloway in Averys lab extracts the transforming principle responsible for transformation but cannot identify it chemically
1937Torbjrn Caspersson deduces that DNA molecules are very long, thin cylinders, and much bigger than a tetranucleotide
1938Florence Bell takes X-ray photographs of DNA; she and Bill Astbury suggest that the bases in the DNA molecule are stacked like a pile of pennies
1940Colin MacLeod in Averys lab detects DNA in extracts of transforming principle but does not follow up the observation
1941Alfred Mirsky extracts chromosin (DNA with associated protein) from cell nuclei
1942Maclyn McCarty and Avery show that the transforming principle consists of DNA, with tiny amounts of contaminating protein
1944Erwin Schrdinger suggests in his book What is Life? that genes are aperiodic crystals

Avery, MacLeod and McCarty publish their landmark paper showing that DNA is the transforming principle and the genetic material in pneumococci

Mirsky insists that protein, not DNA, mediates transformation and is the genetic material

1947Rollin Hotchkiss shows that DNA contains unequal amounts of the four bases, thus ruling out the hypothetical tetranucleotide

Andr Boivin proves that DNA also transforms other bacteria (E. coli )

Masson Gulland proposes that the DNA molecule is held together by hydrogen bonding between bases

Gullands PhD student Michael Creeth proposes that DNA consists of two straight strands of DNA, linked by hydrogen bonding between bases on opposing strands

1948Erwin Chargaff reports that amounts of adenine and thymine are equal, as are those of cytosine and guanine, in different sources of DNA

Linus Pauling discovers the alpha-helix, crucial in shaping protein molecules

1949Sven Furberg works out that the bases lie perpendicular to the backbone of DNA, and proposes a single-stranded, helical structure for DNA
1950Ray Gosling at Kings takes an X-ray photograph showing a regular crystalline appearance of DNA (the A form)
1951January : Rosalind Franklin joins the Biophysics Unit at Kings, to work on the X-ray structure of DNA

May : Wilkins presents the crystalline DNA structure at a meeting in Naples and inspires Jim Watson to solve its structure

Elwyn Beighton in Leeds takes an X-ray photograph that shows the helical features of DNA (B form). The photograph is ignored

July : Wilkins presents DNA structures at a meeting in Cambridge and is told by Franklin to stop working on DNA

Alec Stokes at Kings predicts the X-ray pattern of a helical molecule

October : Jim Watson joins Francis Crick at the Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge and persuades him to pursue the structure of DNA

November : Wilkins meets Watson and Crick and tells them that the most likely structure contains three helical strands of DNA

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