Adam Hochschild - To End All Wars: A Story of Loyalty and Rebellion, 1914-1918

HOUGHTON MIFFLIN HARCOURT
BOSTON NEW YORK
2011

Copyright 2011 by Adam Hochschild

All rights reserved

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Hochschild, Adam.
To end all wars : a story of loyalty and rebellion, 19141918 /
Adam Hochschild.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-618-75828-9
1. World War, 19141918Great Britain. 2. World War, 19141918
Social aspectsGreat Britain. 3. SoldiersGreat BritainBiography.
4. Conscientious objectorsGreat BritainBiography. 5. Loyalty
Case studies. 6. World War, 19141918Psychological aspects. 7. World
War, 19141918Moral and ethical aspects. 8. MilitarismGreat
BritainHistory20th century. 9. PacifismGreat BritainHis
tory20th century. I. Title.

D 546. H 63 2011
940.3'41dc22 2010025836

Book design by Melissa Lotfy

Maps by Mapping Specialists, Ltd.

Printed in the United States of America

DOC 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Photo credits appear on .

For Tom Engelhardt,
analyst of empire, emperor among editors

List of Maps

Introduction: Clash of Dreams

Part IDRAMATIS PERSONAE

1. Brother and Sister

2. A Man of No Illusions

3. A Clergyman's Daughter

4. Holy Warriors

5. Boy Miner

6. On the Eve

Part II1914

7. A Strange Light

8. As Swimmers into Cleanness Leaping

9. The God of Right Will Watch the Fight

Part III1915

10. This Isn't War

11. In the Thick of It

12. Not This Tide

Part IV1916

13. We Regret Nothing

14. God, God, Where's the Rest of the Boys?

15. Casting Away Arms

Part V1917

16. Between the Lion's Jaws

17. The World Is My Country

18. Drowning on Land

19. Please Don't Die

Part VI1918

20. Backs to the Wall

21. There Are More Dead Than Living Now

Part VIIEXEUNT OMNES

22. The Devil's Own Hand

23. An Imaginary Cemetery

Source Notes

Bibliography

Acknowledgments

Index

About the Author

Rival Blocs at the Outbreak of War facing page

The Path to War

The Western Front, AugustSeptember 1914

The Eastern Front and the Balkans, 1915

The Western Front, 19151916

The German Offensive, 1918

The War's Toll on the British Empire

A N EARLY AUTUMN BITE is in the air as a gold-tinged late afternoon falls over the rolling countryside of northern France. Where the land dips between gentle rises, it is already in shadow. Dotting the fields are machine-packed rolls, high as a person's head, of the year's final hay crop. Massive tractors pull boxcar-sized cartloads of potatoes, or corn chopped up for cattle feed. Up a low hill, a grove of trees screens the evidence of another kind of harvest, reaped on this spot nearly a century ago. Each gravestone in the small cemetery has a name, rank, and serial number; 162 have crosses, and one has a Star of David. When known, a man's age is engraved on the stone as well: 19, 22, 23, 26, 34, 21, 20. Ten of the graves simply say, "A Soldier of the Great War, Known unto God." Almost all the dead are from Britain's Devonshire Regiment, the date on their gravestones July 1, 1916, the first day of the Battle of the Somme. Most were casualties of a single German machine gun several hundred yards from this spot, and were buried here in a section of the front-line trench they had climbed out of that morning. Captain Duncan Martin, 30, a company commander and an artist in civilian life, had made a clay model of the battlefield across which the British planned to attack. He predicted to his fellow officers the exact place at which he and his men would come under fire from the nearby German machine gun as they emerged onto an exposed hillside. He, too, is buried here, one of some 21,000 British soldiers killed or fatally wounded on the day of greatest bloodshed in the history of their country's military, before or since.

On a stone plaque next to the graves are the words this regiment's survivors carved on a wooden sign when they buried their dead:

THE DEVONSHIRES HELD THIS TRENCH
THE DEVONSHIRES HOLD IT STILL

The comments in the cemetery's visitors' book are almost all from England: Bournemouth, London, Hampshire, Devon. "Paid our respects to 3 of our townsfolk." "Sleep on, boys." "Lest we forget." "Thanks, lads." "Gt. Uncle thanks, rest in peace." Why does it bring a lump to the throat to see words like sleep, rest, sacrifice, when my reason for being here is the belief that this war was needless folly and madness? Only one visitor strikes a different note: "Never again." On a few pages the ink of the names and remarks has been smeared by raindropsor was it tears?

The bodies of soldiers of the British Empire lie in 400 cemeteries in the Somme battlefield region alone, a rough crescent of territory less than 20 miles long, but graves are not the only mark the war has made on the land. Here and there, a patch of ground gouged by thousands of shell craters has been left alone; decades of erosion have softened the scarring, but what was once a flat field now looks like rugged, grassed-over sand dunes. On the fields that have been smoothed out again, like those surrounding the Devonshires' cemetery, some of the tractors have armor plating beneath the driver's seat, because harvesting machinery cannot distinguish between potatoes, sugar beets, and live shells. More than 700 million artillery and mortar rounds were fired on the Western Front between 1914 and 1918, of which an estimated 15 percent failed to explode. Every year these leftover shells kill people36 in 1991 alone, for instance, when France excavated the track bed for a new high-speed rail line. Dotted throughout the region are patches of uncleared forest or scrub surrounded by yellow danger signs in French and English warning hikers away. The French government employs teams of dmineurs, roving bomb-disposal specialists, who respond to calls when villagers discover shells; they collect and destroy 900 tons of unexploded munitions each year. More than 630 French dmineurs have died in the line of duty since 1946. Like those shells, the First World War itself has remained in our lives, below the surface, because we live in a world that was so much formed by it and by the industrialized total warfare it inaugurated.

Even though I was born long after it ended, the war always seemed a presence in our family. My mother would tell me about the wild enthusiasm of crowds at military parades whenat last!the United States joined the Allies. A beloved first cousin of hers marched off to the sound of those cheers, to be killed in the final weeks of fighting; she never forgot the shock and disillusionment. And no one in my father's family thought it absurd that two of his relatives had fought on opposite sides of the First World War, one in the French army, one in the German. If your country called, you went.

My father's sister married a man who fought for Russia in that war, and we owed his presence in our lives to events triggered by it: the Russian Revolution and the bitter civil war that followedafter which, finding himself on the losing side, he came to America. We shared a summer household with this aunt and uncle, and friends of his who were also veterans of 19141918 were regular visitors. As a boy, I vividly remember standing next to one of them, all of us in bathing suits and about to go swimming, and then looking down and seeing the man's foot: all his toes had been sheared off by a German machine-gun bullet somewhere on the Eastern Front.