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Gender and the work-family experience : an intersection of two domains
Author:
Mills / Maura J
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Springer International Publishing, Cham
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Year:
2014
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Conflict between work and family has been a topic of discussion since the beginning of the womens movement, but recent changes in family structures and workforce demographics have made it clear that the issues impact both women and men. While employers and policymakers struggle to navigate this new terrain, critics charge that the research sector, too, has been slow to respond.

Gender and the Work-Family Experience puts multiple faces male as well as female on complex realities with interdisciplinary and cross-cultural awareness and research-based insight. Besides reviewing the state of gender roles as they affect home and career, this in-depth reference examines and compares how women and men experience work-family conflict and its consequences for relationships at home as well as outcomes on the job. Topics as wide-ranging as gendered occupations, gender and shiftwork, heteronormative assumptions, the myth of the ideal worker, and gendered aspects of work-family guilt reflect significant changes in society and reveal important implications for both research and policy. Also included in the coverage:

Gender ideology and work-family plans of the next generation
Gender, poverty, and the work-family interface
The double jeopardy effect: the importance of gender and race in work-family research
When work intrudes upon employees personal time: does gender matter?
Work-family equality: the importance of a level playing field at home
Women in STEM: family-related challenges and initiatives
Family-friendly organizational policies, practices, and benefits through the gender lens

Geared toward work-family and gender researchers as well as students and educators in a variety of fields, Gender and the Work-Family Experience will find interested readers in the fields of industrial and organizational psychology, business management, social psychology, sociology, gender studies, womens studies, and public policy, among others..

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Part I
SOCIETAL INFLUENCES & ENTRENCHMENT

Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015

Maura J. Mills (ed.) Gender and the Work-Family Experience 10.1007/978-3-319-08891-4_1

1. Gender Ideology and WorkFamily Plans of the Next Generation

Rachel G. Lucas-Thompson 1

(1)

Department of Human Development and Family Studies and Colorado School of Public Health, Colorado State University, Campus Delivery 1570, Behavioral Sciences Building Room 419, 80523 Fort Collins, CO, USA

(2)

Department of Psychology and Social Behavior, University of California, Irvine, 4564 Social and Behavior Sciences Gateway, 92697 Irvine, CA, USA

Rachel G. Lucas-Thompson (Corresponding author)

Email:

Wendy A. Goldberg

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Keywords

Gender ideology Gender Workfamily Generation Age Perception Stereotype Emerging adult Adolescent Demographics

1.1 Introduction

Over the last several decades, the gender disparity in the work force has been declining, as evidenced by findings that women now make up approximately half of the work force (Bureau of Labor Statistics ).

Following the birth of children, it is rare for men to reduce or end their work outside the home; in the USA, only 3 % of families with children younger than 15 have stay-at-home fathers (e.g., Kreider and Elliott ).

Longer parental leave policies would help dual-earner and single parents spend more time at home before re-entering the labor force . Federal parental leave policies in the USA provide up to 12 weeks of job-protected, unpaid leave (see the 1993 Family and Medical Leave Act), which extends to up to 24 weeks of combined unpaid parental leave for two-parent families (Ray et al. ).

While strides are being made in the sharing of child care, the equitable division of housework has lagged behind (Parker and Wang ).

When women work outside the home and carry the weight of the second shift (Hochschild ), thus giving pause to young women who plan to combine a demanding career with family. Considering the career advancement and mental health ramifications of inconsistencies between gender role attitudes and behavior, coupled with stalled behavioral change in the domestic sphere, insight into whether these gendered patterns are likely to continue can be revealed by studying the views of the generation transitioning to adulthood.

In the current chapter, we review past research on the plans and strategies that adolescents and emerging adults (defined as the age period roughly from 18 to 25, Arnett ).

In the first study, the Adolescent Study, participants were 15-year-olds ( n = 101; 49.5 % female) from one site of the NICHD Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development, a sample that was primarily (66 %) European American with significant Hispanic American representation (18 %); adolescents came from families that were mostly middle-to-upper-middle class. Adolescents families were recruited at childbirth from selected hospitals based on a conditional random-sampling plan that was designed to ensure the sample reflected the economic, educational, and ethnic diversity of the area. Adolescents provided the information described below during a visit to their home, and received payment for participation in the larger study during which these data were collected.

In the second study, the Emerging Adult Study, participants were undergraduates ( n = 343; 69 % female) from three diverse colleges/universities across the country; a small liberal arts institution in Wisconsin ( n = 92), a commuter university in Chicago, IL ( n = 76), and a large research university in California ( n = 175). As a result, the college sample was heterogeneous geographically and in terms of socioeconomic status and ethnicity (42 % European American, 30 % Asian American, 12 % Hispanic American, and 16 % other or multiple ethnicities). College students averaged 20.35 years of age ( SD = 1.59; range of 1724 years). Students provided the information described below during a visit to their classrooms, and received extra credit for participating.

Across studies , participants provided background/demographic information and completed a 24-item scale that assessed their gender ideology (Wenzel and Lucas-Thompson ). Their expectations for workfamily roles were reported in terms of how much/whether they planned to work after marriage but before children (I will not work outside the home, I will work part-time, and I will work full-time) and after the birth of children (I will not work outside the home, I will work part-time, and I will work full-time). Participants also indicated how they anticipated dividing childcare responsibilities (I will be the primary care-taker, My partner will be the primary care-taker, and My partner and I will share care-taking equally).

In data analysis for both studies, gender differences in work and caregiving aspirations were examined; in addition, using bivariate correlations, chi-square analyses, and ordinary least squares regression analyses, associations were examined among gender ideology , work aspirations, and plans to divide caregiving responsibilities . Before presenting the results of these studies, we review prior research on the workfamily plans of the generation coming to adulthood.

1.2 Adolescents and Emerging Adults Plans for Managing Work and Family

Research focusing on how young individuals expect to manage work and family has primarily focused on work aspirations. Social changes that picked up steam during the 1970s and 1980s have led to many young women planning to continue to work after having children (e.g., Baber and Monaghan ).

Expectations about work before and after children are clearly important to include when investigating how emerging adults expect to deal with gender issues. However, other expectations need to be considered as well, including how individuals transitioning to adulthood expect to divide or share child-rearing, and how and whether work expectations are related to expectations about child-rearing (e.g., do emerging adults who expect to share child-rearing expect both partners to work equal hours?). For instance, a robust finding is that adults are often inconsistent in terms of behaving in line with their gender ideologies, in that even those with egalitarian ideals continue to divide household tasks in traditionally gendered ways (e.g., Bianchi et al. ). Therefore, it is likely that emerging adults may also display inconsistencies in their expectations about balancing work and family.

Traditionally, workfamily arrangements are most likely to become more gender-typed after the birth of children (e.g., Goldberg et al. ).

1.2.1 Findings from the Adolescent and Emerging Adult Studies

Results from our new studies confirm many of the findings from past studies, but also extend knowledge about how contemporary adolescents and emerging adults think about balancing work and family in the future. For example, among those adolescents and emerging adults who reported that they want to get married, men and women had similar aspirations for paid work after marriage and before children, with most expecting to work full-time (see Figs. ).

Fig. 1.1

Gender differences in work aspirations before and after children are born. (Adolescent Study)

Fig 12 Gender differences in work aspirations before and after children are - photo 2

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