Stevenson - Cataclysm : the First World War as political tragedy
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Also by David Stevenson
The Outbreak of the First World War:
1914 in Perspective
Armaments and the Coming of War:
Europe, 19041914
The First World War
and International Politics
French War Aims
against Germany, 19141919
Political Tragedy
Copyright 2004 by David Stevenson
Published by Basic Books,
A Member of the Perseus Books Group
All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. No part of this book may be reproduced in any manner whatsoever without written permission except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical articles and reviews. For information, address Basic Books, 387 Park Avenue South, New York, NY 10016-8810.
Books published by Basic Books are available at special discounts for bulk purchases in the United States by corporations, institutions, and other organizations. For more information, please contact the Special Markets Department at the Perseus Books Group, 11 Cambridge Center, Cambridge MA 02142, or call (617) 252-5298, (800) 255-1514 or e-mail .
Designed by Lisa Kreinbrink
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Stevenson, D. (David), 1954
Cataclysm : the First World War as political tragedy / David Stevenson.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-465-08184-3
eBook ISBN: 9780786738854
1. World War, 1914-1918. I. Title.
D521.S83 2004
940.3dc22
2003028029
04 05 06 / 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
This book is dedicated with respect and affection to
my parents-in-law, Ida and Morris Myers, to my
mother, Moira Stevenson, and to the memory of my
father, Edward Stevenson.
1. Europe in 1914
2. The Western Front, 1914 (Insert: The Ypres Salient, 19141918)
3. The Eastern Front, 19141918
4. The Balkans and the Straits (Insert: The Dardanelles, 1915)
5. The North Sea
6. East Asia and the Western Pacific
7. Africa in 1914
8. The Middle East, 19141918
9. The Western Front, 19151917
10. The Italian Front, 19151918
11. The Western Front, 1918
12. The Central Powers at their Zenith, 1918
13. The European Peace Settlement
AC Austen Chamberlain Papers, Birmingham University Library
AEF American Expeditionary Force
AIF Australian Imperial Force
AMTC Allied Maritime Transport Council
AOK Armee Oberkommando (Austro-Hungarian high command)
ASL Auxiliary Service Law
BA-MA Bundesarchiv-Militrarchiv, Freiburg im Breisgau
BDFA British Documents on Foreign Affairs
BDFA BEF British Expeditionary Force
CAS Chief of the Admiralty Staff
CCAC Churchill College Archive Centre, Cambridge
CGS Chief of the General Staff
CGT Confdration gnrale du travail (French trade-union centre)
CGW Comrades of the Great War
CIAMAC Confrence internationale des associations des mutils et des anciens combattants
CID Committee of Imperial Defence
CIGS Chief of the Imperial General Staff
CPI Committee on Public Information
CUP Committee of Union and Progress
DCG Deputy Commanding General (Germany)
DDP Deutsche Demokratische Partei
DORA Defence of the Realm Act
EEF Egyptian Expeditionary Force
EMA Etat-major de larme (French general staff)
EPD Excess Profits Duty
FO Foreign Office
FOCP Foreign Office Confidential Print
FOO Forward Observation Officer
GGS Great General Staff (Grosser GeneralstabGermany)
GHQ General Headquarters
GNP Gross National Product
GQG Grand Quartier gnral (French high command)
IRA Irish Republican Army
ISB International Socialist Bureau
ISNTUC International Secretariat of National Trade Union Centres
IWC Imperial War Cabinet
IWGC Imperial War Graves Commission
IWM Imperial War Museum
KDL Kyffhuserbund der deutschen Landeskriegerverbnde
KPD Kommunistische Partei Deutschlands
KRA Kriegsrohstoffabteilung
KA Kriegsberwachungsamt
LC Liddle Collection, Leeds University Library
LHCMA Liddell Hart Centre for Military Archives
MFGB Miners Federation of Great Britain
MRC Military Revolutionary Committee
NAA Northern Arab Army
NADSS National Association of Discharged Soldiers and Sailors
NFDDSS National Federation of Discharged and Demobilized Soldiers and Sailors
NLS National Library of Scotland
NNP Net National Product
NOT Netherlands Overseas Trust
N.S. New Style
NUWSS National Union of Womens Suffrage Societies
NWAC National War Aims Committee
OHL Oberste Heeresleitung (German High Command)
O.S. Old Style
PMR Permanent Military Representatives (of SWC)
PRC Parliamentary Recruiting Committee
PSI Partito socialista italiano
RFC Royal Flying Corps
RKK Reichsband der Kriegsbeschdigten und ehemaligen Kriegsteilnehmer
RMO Regimental Medical Officer
RMO SBR Small Box Respirator
SFIO Section franaise de lInternationale ouvrire (French socialist party)
SHA Service historique de larme de terre, Vincennes
SKL Seekriegsleitung
SPD Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands (German Social Democratic Party)
SRs Socialist Revolutionaries (Russia)
SWC Supreme War Council
TF Territorial Force
TUC Trades Union Congress
UDC Union of Democratic Control
UF Union fdrale
UGACPE Union des grandes associations contre la propagande ennemie
UNC Union nationale des combattants
USPD Unabhngige Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands (German independent socialists)
VDK Volksbund deutscher Kriegsgrberfrsorger
WIB War Industries Board
WO War Office
WSPU Womens Social and Political Union
I N 1914 A FULL-STRENGTH infantry division in the German army comprised 17,500 officers and men, 72 artillery pieces, and 24 machine guns; in the French army 15,000 officers and men, 36 artillery pieces, and 24 machine guns; in the British army 18,073 officers and men, 76 artillery pieces, and 24 machine guns. These were regulation strengths, and combat strengths after campaigning began were almost invariably lower. During the war most armies reduced regulation strengths while increasing firepower. However, the American divisions deployed to France in 1917 were much larger than the European norm: c. 28,000 officers and men each.
An army corps normally comprised two infantry divisions, and an army two or more army corps. An army group (to be found in the French and German armies after 1914, and the approximate equivalent of the north-western and south-western fronts found in the Russian army) comprised a number of armies, totalling from 500,000 to over 1 million men. Conversely, the normal components of infantry divisions were
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