Malcolm Yapp - The Making of the Modern Near East 1792-1923

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THE MAKING OF THE MODERN NEAR EAST 17921923

A History of the Near East

General Editor: Professor P. M. Holt

* The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates: the Islamic Near East from the sixth to the eleventh century

Hugh Kennedy

* The Age of the Crusades: the Near East from the eleventh century to 1517

P. M. Holt

The Rise of the Ottoman Empire 13001574

C. Kafadar

The Decline of the Ottoman Empire 15741792

R. C. Repp

* The Making of the Modern Near East 17921923

M. E. Yapp

* The Near East since the First World War

M. E. Yapp

* Medieval Persia 10401797

David Morgan

* Already published

The Making of the Modern Near East

17921923

M. E. Yapp

First published 1987 by Pearson Education Limited

Published 2013 by Routledge

2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN

711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017, USA

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

M. E. Yapp 1987

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.

Notices

Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.

Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.

To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.

ISBN: 978-0-582-49380-3 (pbk)

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

Yapp, M. E.

The making of the modem Near East 17921923.

1. Middle East-Politics and government

I. Title.

956 DS62.9

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Yapp, Malcolm.

The making of the modem Near East. 1792-1923.

(A History of the Near East)

Bibliography: p.

Includes index.

1. Middle East - History - 1517-. I. Title.

II. Series.

DS62.4.Y35 1987 956.02 87-2068.

ISBN 0-582-01366-6

ISBN 0-582-49380-3 (pbk.)

Names and Titles

Near Eastern Muslim names commonly consisted of five elements: the personal name, the formal name, the patronymic, the group name and the honorific.

1. The personal name (ism or alam), for example Amed, Al, usayn and Muammad. Occasionally individuals were known by two personal names in combination, for example Muammad Al of Egypt. Another version of the personal name is the compound usually formed by the combination of Abd (slave) with one of the so-called ninety-nine beautiful names of God, more precisely, attributes of God. Examples include the Ottoman sultans Abd l-Azz (Slave of the Powerful One), Abd l-Majd (Slave of the Glorious One) and Abd l-amd (Slave of the Praiseworthy One).
2. The formal name (kunya, usually denoting the relationship of the namebearer to another person, for example Ab (Father of) accompanied by the name of the other person. Thus, Abl-Qsim = The father of Qsim. Alternatively, the kunya may describe a metaphorical relationship, for example Abl-Fal (Father of merit), or a relationship to some familiar object with which the individual is associated, amounting in this usage to a nickname. Thus the Egyptian Jewish writer, James Sanua was known as Ab Nara (Father of spectacles).
3. The patronymic (nasab) indicating the genealogy of the namebearer by listing the names of his ancestors, each name being preceded by the word ibn (son of), for example Al ibn Muammad (Al the son of Muammad). An alternative way of describing genealogy used in Persian and Turkish respectively is by the addition of the suffixes-zda and -oghlu to the name of the father, for example Sulnzda and Karaomnoghlu.
4. The group name (nisba) often denoting the place of origin, for example al-Mir (the Egyptian) or the occupation, for example al-ayraf (the banker or moneychanger).
5. The honorific (laqab) may be either a nickname or a title. An example of a nickname is to be found in the name by which a well-known Syrian Druze family is known, namely al-Arash (the deaf). Titles were usually bestowed upon rulers, princes, soldiers and officers of state and were commonly compounds with Dawla (state), for example Nir al-Dawla (Defender of the state), Mulk (kingdom), Sultn (ruler) or Islam. In Iran bureaucrats were commonly known by their titles or even by a title acquired at an earlier stage of their careers and indicating an office now relinquished. Thus the powerful minister, Mustawf al-Mamlik (Accountant of the state), continued to be known by this title after he had ceased to be finance minister.

An individual might be known by names chosen from any of the above groups or by combinations of them. There was no direct equivalent of a surname until after the end of the period with which this book is concerned.

Dates

In this book only Christian dates (Gregorian calendar) have been provided. To find the Muslim (Hijra) date it is necessary to have recourse to a conversion table, for example W. Haig, Comparative tables of Muhammadan and Christian dates, London 1932, or G. S. P. Freeman-Grenville, The Muslim and Christian calendars, London 1963. During the nineteenth century for official purposes the Ottoman empire employed a modified calendar combining the solar year of the Julian calendar (with the Roman names of the months) and the Muslim era. The year began on 1 March and was known as martiye from the Turkish word for March.

Currencies

The basic unit of Ottoman currency at the beginning of the nineteenth century was the kurush (piastre). The severe depreciation of this coin led in 1844 to the introduction of the lira (pound) divided into 100 kurush. In 1881 a new gold pound (0.90) was introduced divided into 100 new kurush. The principal coin in circulation was the silver mejdiye, valued at 20 kurush. Various coins circulated in different parts of the empire and foreign coins were widely used, in Yemen the commonest coin was the Maria Theresa dollar. In Egypt in 1835 was introduced the piastre as a unit of account divided into 40 paras, the basic coin being the 20-piastre silver piece. In 1885 the Egyptian pound divided into 100 piastres was introduced. In Iran the principal coin was the tmn (toman) which fell in value throughout the nineteenth century. Accounts were reckoned in the

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