Horst Czichos Tetsuya Saito - Springer Handbook of Metrology and Testing

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Part 1
Fundamentals of Metrology and Testing

Horst Czichos , Tetsuya Saito and Leslie Smith (eds.) Springer Handbook of Metrology and Testing 10.1007/978-3-642-16641-9_1 Springer-Verlag 2011

1. Introduction to Metrology and Testing

Horst Czichos 1

(1)

University of Applied Sciences Berlin, BHT Berlin, Luxemburger Strasse 10, 13353 Berlin, Germany

Horst Czichos

Email:

1.1

1.1.1

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Abstract

This chapter reviews the methodologies of measurement and testing. It gives an overview of metrology and presents the fundamentals of materials characterization as a basis for

Chemical and microstructural analysis

Materials properties measurement

Materials performance testing

which are treated in parts B, C, and D of the handbook.

Abbreviations

BIPM

Bureau International des Poids et Mesures

BIPM

International Bureau of Weights and Measures

CAB

conformity assessment body

CASCO

ISO Committee on Conformity Assessment

CGPM

General Conference on Weights and Measures

CIPM

Comit Internationale des Poids et Mesures

CIPM

International Committee of Weights and Measures

CM

ceramic matrix

CMC

calibration and measurement capability

CMC

ceramic matrix composite

CRM

certified reference material

DI

designated institute

EC

electrochemical

EU

European Union

GUM

Glowny-Urzad-Miar

GUM

guide to the expression of uncertainty in measurement

IEC

International Electrotechnical Commission

IFCC

International Federation of Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine

ILAC

International Laboratory Accreditation Cooperation

ISO

International Organization for Standardization

JCGM

Joint Committee for Guides in Metrology

KCDB

key comparison database

MID

measuring instruments directive

MKSA

meter, kilogram, second, and ampere

MM

metal matrix

MMC

metal matrix composite

MRA

multiregional agreement

MRA

mutual recognition arrangement

NDE

nondestructive evaluation

NMI

National Metrology Institute

OIML

International Organization of Legal Metrology

PM

polymer matrix

RM

reference material

RMO

regional metrology organization

SI

International System of Units

SI

Systme International dUnits

VAMAS

Versailles Project on Advanced Materials and Standards

WTO

World Trade Organization

In science and engineering, objects of interest have to be characterized by measurement and testing. Measurement is the process of experimentally obtaining quantity values that can reasonably be attributed to a property of a body or substance. Metrology is the science of measurement. Testing is the technical procedure consisting of the determination of characteristics of a given object or process, in accordance with a specified method [].

1.1 Methodologies of Measurement and Testing

The methodologies of measurement and testing to determine characteristics of a given object are illustrated in a unified general scheme in Fig. , which is discussed in the next sections.

Fig. 1.1

The methodologies of measurement ( light brown ) and testing ( dark brown ) a general scheme

1.1.1 Measurement

Measurement begins with the definition of the measurand, the quantity intended to be measured. The specification of a measurand requires knowledge of the kind of quantity and a description of the object carrying the quantity. When the measurand is defined, it must be related to a measurement standard, the realization of the definition of the quantity to be measured. The measurement procedure is a detailed description of a measurement according to a measurement principle and to a given measurement method. It is based on a measurement model, including any calculation to obtain a measurement result. The basic features of a measurement procedure are the following [].

• Measurement principle: the phenomenon serving as a basis of a measurement
• Measurement method: a generic description of a logical organization of operations used in a measurement
• Measuring system: a set of one or more measuring instruments and often other devices, including any reagent and supply, assembled and adapted to give information used to generate measured quantity values within specified intervals for quantities of specified kinds
• Measurement uncertainty: a nonnegative parameter characterizing the dispersion of the quantity values being attributed to a measurand

The result of a measurement has to be expressed as a quantity value together with its uncertainty, including the unit of the measurand.

1.1.1.1 Traceability and Calibration

The measured quantity value must be related to a reference through a documented unbroken traceability chain . The traceability of measurement is described in detail in Sect. 3.2. Figure illustrates this concept schematically.

Fig. 1.2

The traceability chain for measurements

The traceability chain ensures that a measurement result or the value of a standard is related to references at the higher levels, ending at the primary standard, based on the International System of Units ( le Systme International dUnits , SI) (Sect. ].

A basic tool in ensuring the traceability of a measurement is either the calibration of a measuring instrument or system, or through the use of a reference material. Calibration determines the performance characteristics of an instrument or system before its use, while reference material calibrates the instrument or system at time of use. Calibration is usually achieved by means of a direct comparison against measurement standards or certified reference materials and is documented by a calibration certificate for the instrument.

The expression traceability to the SI means traceability of a measured quantity value to a unit of the International System of Units. This means metrological traceability to a dematerialized reference , because the SI units are conceptually based on natural constants , e.g., the speed of light for the unit of length. So, as already mentioned and shown in Fig. ) is needed to characterize the object that bears the metrologically defined and measured quantity value.

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