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Verification 1997: The Vertic Yearbook
Author:
Richard Guthrie
Publisher:
Routledge
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Books / Politics
Year:
1997
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Verification 1997

First published 1997 by Westview Press

Published 2018 by Routledge

711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017, USA

2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.

Notice:

Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.

A CIP catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.

ISBN 13: 978-0-8133-9987-4 (pbk)

Thanks are due to the funders of VERTIC for their support for the activities of VERTIC, of which the Verification series of yearbooks is but a small part.

Thanks are likewise due to all the authors of the invited papers that have gone to make up this volume and to Danny Harvey and the IRIS Newsletter for supplying the cover image.

John Poole has been responsible for assiduously hunting down the editors errors and oversights.

Julian Perry Robinson and Henrietta Wilson have provided invaluable assistance.

In addition to those VERTIC members who prepared papers for this volume, the staff in the London office Tiffany Edwards, Nic Elborn,Tanya Hassan and Patricia Lewis were, as ever, most helpful to the editor.

Finally, thanks are due to the lovely Caroline Darrall for her patience and assistance and to Miriam Rogers for her inspiration.

R. Guthrie

Ricardo Ayrosa is an officer in the Division of Disarmament and Sensitive Technologies of the Brazilian Ministry of Foreign Affairs.

Nikola Cvetkovski is the Administrator of the VERTIC Transcaucasus Office in Tblisi.

Annabelle Duncan is a Principal Research Scientist in the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization, Melbourne and has acted as a consultant on biological disarmament to the Arms Control Branch of the Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade.

Richard Guthrie is editor of VERTICs monthly bulletin Trust & Verify.

Rebecca Johnson is Director of Disarmament Intelligence Review and author of the ACRONYM Reports on the CTBT and the NPT.

John Lanchbery is Director of Environmental Projects at VERTIC.

Robert Mathews is a principal research scientist with the Australian Defence Science and Technology Organization and a scientific adviser to the Australian delegation to the Preparatory Commission of the OPCW.

Lorna Miller is in the UK Defence Evaluation and Research Agency, CBD Porton Down.

Roque Nonteleone-Neto is Associate Professor in the Department of Genetics of the Federal University of Sao Paulo, Brazil and is currently working for the United Nations Special Commission on Iraq in New York.

Graham Pearson is Honorary Senior Visiting Research Fellow in Peace Studies, University of Bradford, Bradford, UK.

Ann Peters is a consultant with the Human Rights Watch Arms Project.

Dennis Sammut is the Conflict and Confidence-Building Project co-ordinator, VERTIC.

Suzanna van Moyland is Arms Control and Disarmament Researcher, VERTIC.

John R. Walker is a Principal Research Officer of the Arms Control and Disarmament Research Unit in the UK Foreign & Commonwealth Office.

Achieving Universality

One of the features of the post-Cold War era is the growing numbers of new treaties, and the strengthening of the provisions of older treaties, in the fields of arms control and disarmament and the environment.

One measure, albeit simple, of the success of a treaty is the breadth of its membership how close is it to universal application in all states?

The Arms Control and Disarmament Experience

While regional arms control and disarmament treaties have an impressive level of adherence within their geographical scope, global treaties have not been so successful.

In the field of weapons of mass destruction (WMD), only the 1968 nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) has achieved anything near universal membership. The other key WMD treaties the 1925 Geneva Protocol, the 1972 Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention (BTWC) and the 1993 Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) all have much more limited membership.

However, looking at the numbers of parties to each of these treaties is only one perspective. If one is concerned with the issue of universality, then a simple question is: how many states are full members to all of the four global WMD treaties?

The answer, as of 31 December 1996, does not make comfortable reading.

Of 194 states in the world: 45 (23 per cent) 49 (25 per cent) have signed but not yet ratified, the CWC and are parties to the other three; with exactly 100 (51 per cent) states remaining, that are not signatories or parties to all of the four WMD treaties.

Prospects that all of the states that have signed but not yet ratified the CWC must be viewed in the light of the 18 signatures to the BTWC from the 1970s, before the conventions entry into force, that have not yet been followed by ratifications.

It is clear that universality in this field is further away than conventional wisdom supposes.

The Environmental Experience

The experience in the environmental field is more heartening. Take, for example, three major global environmental treaties for comparison: the 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity, the 1992 Framework Convention on Climate Change, and the 1985 Vienna Convention on the Protection of the Ozone Layer and its 1989 Montreal Protocol.

Although each of these treaties are very young compared with those in the fields of arms control and disarmament, their membership is much more widespread.

As of 31 December 1996,135 (70 per cent) of the 194 states are parties to all three conventions, with an additional 19 (10 per cent) which have signed but not yet ratified one of the 1992 conventions. There are thus only 40 states (20 per cent) remaining that are not signatories or parties to all of these three environmental treaties.

All states that signed the Vienna Convention before its entry into force have now ratified it; this may be contrasted with the position of the BTWC, above.

While there is clearly some distance to go before universality is achieved, ratifications and accessions continue to be deposited to all of these conventions at a steady rate.

The Benefits of Universality

While there are many benefits of universality, one of the key features is the enhancement that this provides for verification regimes.

An Even Burden of Verification

Once a treaty has achieved universal application then the costs of verification apply to all. Industries may be regulated in the fields of arms control and disarmament (to ensure dual-use capabilities are not use for prohibited purposes) and in the environmental field (to ensure limits on production or use of certain substances are observed).

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