Jeffrey H. Schwartz - Rethinking Human Evolution

Richard G. Delisle

Siobhan Mc Manus

John de Vos and Jelle W. F. Reumer

Jeffrey H. Schwartz

Rob DeSalle, Apurva Narechania, Martine Zilversmit, Jeff Rosenfeld, and Michael Tessler

Alan R. Templeton

Michael D. Petraglia and Huw S. Groucutt

Peter J. Waddell

Fred L. Bookstein

Markus Bastir

Robin Dennell

Gabriele A. Macho

Thomas W. Plummer and Emma M. Finestone

Dietrich Stout

Ian Tattersall

Claudine Cohen

List of Figures

Paul Adloffs (1908) parallel tree, illustrating the unique, nonprimate origin of the human lineage.

Giuseppe Sergis (1908) polyphyletic tree and the intertwining of apes and various human populations.

Francis Crookshanks (1931) polyphyletic tree and the intertwining of the great apes and various human populations.

Theodor Arldts (1915) polyphyletic tree and the intertwining of various human populations, apes, and monkeys.

William Pycrafts (1925) parallel tree showing both modern-looking and primitive-like lineages giving rise to living human populations.

The analysis space of human genetics. There are three axes in the space and hence discrete octants. Most, if not all, human genetics studies go into a single point within the space. The Y axis represents whether a study includes a fossil sequence or not. The X axis represents whether the focus of the study is within a population or between discrete entities. The Z axis represents whether the analysis uses clonal markers (Y chromosome or mtDNA). The darkened part of the space is where phylogenetic trees are ontologically unsound.

Phylogenetic trees for the four chromosomal entities discussed in the paper. Data from the 1000 Genomes Project were used to produce the trees, and individuals were colored according to the 1000 Genomes lists for continent of origin.

Tanglegrams of the individual chromosomal trees paired for clonal markers (on the left; mtDNA and Y chromosomal DNA) and recombining markers (on the right; Chromosome 20 and X chromosome).

Bootstrap tree of combined Phase 1 1000 Genomes male dataset using TNT (Goloboff et al. 2008). Data from Phase 1 of the 1000 Genomes Project were used to produce the tree and individuals were colored according to the 1000 genomes lists for continent of origin. Purple = African American, Blue = Africa, Red = Asia, Green = Europe, and Orange = Central America. The trees were generated in TNT using a bootstrap (100 replicates) and only nodes with bootstraps greater than 85% are retained.

A. Phylogenetic tree constructed using TNT (Goloboff et al. 2008) using the top 1% SNPs that are Ancestral Informative Markers (AIMs) as defined in the text. Purple = African American, Blue = Africa, Red = Asia, Green = Europe, and Orange = Central America. B. Phylogenetic tree constructed using the TNT using the bottom 1% SNPs that are Ancestral Informative Markers (AIMs) as defined in the text.

The mtDNA haplotype tree from Cann et al. (1987), with the ancestral root inferred by mid-point rooting.

The three classes of models of human evolution simulated for an ABC analysis. M measures the amount of admixture of an expanding African population with archaic Eurasians. The double-head arrows in the Multi-Regional Model represent gene flow between Africans and Eurasians. Modified from Fagundes et al. (2007).

Inferences about recent human evolution based upon hypothesis testing with no prior model of human evolution using MLNCPA. The earliest event detected is an expansion out of Africa into Eurasia dated at 1.9 mya (million years ago), as shown by the thick arrow near the bottom, followed by two subsequent expansions of humans out of Africa. The thick arrows showing these subsequent expansions are overlaid upon the Eurasian human lineages to indicate significant admixture. After the mid-Pleistocene expansion, humans displayed significant gene flow among geographic populations, as indicated by the thin diagonal lines. There were additional expansions of human populations during the last 50,000 years followed by the establishment of gene flow among populations.