Willard M. Oliver - 16 July

. Bryan Burrough, Public Enemies: Americas Greatest Crime Wave and the Birth of the FBI, 193334 (New York: The Penguin Press, 2004); and David Grann, Killers of the Flower Moon: The Osage Murders and the Birth of the FBI (New York: Vintage, 2018).

. Lawrence M. Friedman, Crime and Punishment in American History (New York: Basic Books, 1993), 261.

. David T. Courtwright, Forces of Habit: Drugs and the Making of the Modern World (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001).

. Samuel Walker, Popular Justice: A History of American Criminal Justice, 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), 25 .

. Bruce Smith, Rural Crime Control (New York: Institute of Public Administration, Columbia University, 1933).

. Walker, Popular Justice, 25.

. Roger Lane, Policing the City: Boston, 18221855 (New York, NY: Atheneum, 1971), 8.

Press, 1977); Law Enforcement Assistance Association, Two Hundred Years of American Criminal Justice: An LEAA Bicentennial Study, ed. Joseph Foote (Washington, DC: US Department of Justice, 1976).

. Boston City Council, Ordinances and Rules and Orders of the City of Boston: Together with the General and Special Statutes of the Massachusetts Legislature Relating to the City (Boston: Alfred Mudge and Son Printers, 1869), 524.

. Willard M. Oliver and James F. Hilgenberg Jr., A History of Crime and Criminal Justice in America, 2nd ed. (Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press, 2010), 47.

. Oliver and Hilgenberg, History of Crime.

. Lane, Policing the City; Walker, Popular Justice.

. William Shakespeare, Much Ado about Nothing (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 79.

. Benjamin Franklin, The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin (Mineola, NY: Dover Thrift Editions, [1791] 1996), 81.

. James F. Richardson, Urban Police in the United States (Port Washington, NY: Kennikat Press, 1974), 10.

. Eric H. Monkkonen, Police in Urban America, 18601920 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1981), 32.

. George Washington Walling, Recollections of a New York Chief of Police: An Official Record of Thirty-Eight Years as Patrolman, Detective, Captain, Inspector and Chief of the New York Police (New York: Caxton Book Concern, 1887), 32.

. Edwin G. Burrows and Mike Wallace, Gotham: A History of New York City to 1898 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 637; Wilbur R. Miller, Cops and Bobbies: Police Authority in New York and London, 18301870, 2nd ed. (Columbus: The Ohio State University Press, 1997), 4.

.

. David R. Johnson, American Law Enforcement: A History (Wheeling, IL: Forum Press, 1981); Madison, Notes on the Debates.

. Sean Condon, Shayss Rebellion: Authority and Distress in Post-Revolutionary America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2015); Leonard L. Richards, Shayss Rebellion: The American Revolutions Final Battle (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2002).

Madison, 1946), 33; Broadus Mitchell, Heritage from Hamilton (New York: Columbia University Press, 1957), 26.

. Condon, Shayss Rebellion; Richards, Shayss Rebellion.

. Madison, Notes on the Debates.

.

. Richards, Shayss Rebellion.

. Alexander Hamilton, essay no. 17, in Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay, The Federalist: A Collection of Essays, Written in Favour of the New Constitution, 2 vols. (New York: J. and A. McLean, 1787).

. Ibid.

. Gordon S. Wood, Empire of Liberty: A History of the Early Republic, 17891815 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), 409.

. Johnson, American Law Enforcement.

. Wood, Empire of Liberty, 409.

. Ibid.

. Ibid., 410.

. Frederick S. Calhoun, The Lawmen: United States Marshals and Their Deputies, 17891989 (New York: Penguin Books, 1991), 13.

. Robert Sabbag, Too Tough to Die: Down and Dangerous with the U. S. Marshals (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1992), 39.

. This act is informally known as the Judiciary Act of 1789.

. Calhoun, Lawmen, 3.

. Ibid.; Sabbag, Too Tough to Die.

. Mark Edward Lender and Garry Wheeler Stone, Fatal Sunday: George Washington, the Monmouth Campaign, and the Politics of Battle (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2016).

.

. Calhoun, Lawmen, 12 and 15.

. John C. Fitzpatrick, ed., The Writings of George Washington from the Original Manuscript Sources, 17451799: Prepared under the Direction of the United States George Washington Bicentennial Commission and Published by Authority of Congress (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1939), 336.

. Calhoun, Lawmen, 3.

. Calhoun, Lawmen.

. William Hogeland, The Whisky Rebellion: George Washington, Alexander Hamilton, and the Frontier Rebels Who Challenged Americas Newfound Sovereignty (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2010).

. Jeffrey B. Bumgarner, Federal Agents: The Growth of Federal Law Enforcement in America (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2006); Calhoun, Lawmen.

. Calhoun, Lawmen.

. Ibid; Robin Langley Sommer, The History of the U. S. Marshals: The Proud Story of Americas Legendary Lawmen (Philadelphia: Courage Books, 1993).

. U.S. Const. art. I, 2.

.

. Calhoun, Lawmen; Nancy E. Marion and Willard M. Oliver, Federal Law Enforcement Agencies in America (Frederick, MD: Wolters Kluwer Law and Business), 2015; Sommer, History.

.

.

. Jane H. Pease and William H. Pease, The Fugitive Slave Law and Anthony Burns: A Problem in Law Enforcement (New York: Lippincott, 1975).

. Thomas P. Slaughter, Bloody Dawn: The Christiana Riot and Racial Violence in the Antebellum North (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991).

. Pease and Pease, Fugitive Slave Law.

. Calhoun, Lawmen; James Mackay, Allan Pinkerton: The First Private Eye (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1996); Frank Morn, The Eye That Never Sleeps: A History of the Pinkerton National Detective Agency (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1982).

. Allan Pinkerton, Professional Thieves and the Detective: Containing Numerous Detective Sketches Collected from Private Records (New York: G. W. Dillingham Co., Publishers, 1880), 17 and 19.

. Morn, Eye That Never Sleeps.

. Ibid., 21.

. Pinkerton, Professional Thieves, 24.

. Mackay, Allan Pinkerton, 59.

. Pinkerton, Professional Thieves, 24 and 25.

. Ibid.

. Mackay, Allan Pinkerton, 60.

. Pinkerton, Professional Thieves, 26.

. Ibid., 54.

. Mackay, Allan Pinkerton; Morn, Eye That Never Sleeps.

. As quoted in ibid., 27.

. As quoted in Morn, Eye That Never Sleeps, 19.

. Mackay, Allan Pinkerton; Morn, Eye That Never Sleeps.

. Mackay, Allan Pinkerton, 49 and passim.

. As quoted in ibid., 53.

. As quoted in ibid., 54.

. Ibid.

. Ibid.; Morn, Eye That Never Sleeps.

. As quoted in Mackay, Allan Pinkerton, 68.

. James D. Horan, The Pinkertons: The Detective Dynasty That Made History (New York: Crown Publishers, Inc., 1967); James D. Horan and Howard Swiggett, The Pinkerton Story (New York: G. P. Putnams Sons, 1951); Mackay, Allan Pinkerton.

.

. Morn, Eye That Never Sleeps, 22.

. Mackay, Allan Pinkerton