George Fried - Schaums Outline of Biology

SCHAUMS outlines
Biology

Third Edition

George H. Fried, Ph.D.

Professor of Biology
Brooklyn College

George J. Hademenos, Ph.D.

Former Visiting Assistant Professor
Department of Physics
University of Dallas

Schaums Outline Series

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To my wife, Lillian, for her patience
and to Sylvia, Ellen, and Judy

G.H.F.

To Kelly and Alexandra,
for their undying love
and tireless support.

G.J.H.

Biology has undergone tremendous changes since the seminal contributions of Watson and Crick inaugurated the era of molecular biology (1953). The more descriptive aspects of the field, long associated with the older notion of biology as natural history, have been complemented by investigative insights that afford an understanding of life in terms of the precise characteristics of macromolecules such as DNA, RNA, and protein. To a marked extent, heredity, development, the control of cell function and even evolution have become better understood by applying the probes of molecular biology.

However, the drama of life and its evolving diversity and scope, requires a perspective of time and an appreciation of meticulous descriptive detail to be truly appreciated. To cover these descriptive and historical aspects while elucidating with thoroughness the biochemical and molecular approaches imposes a daunting challenge to anyone undertaking a concise treatment of modern biology. Maintaining such a balance has been a continuing aim here.

In the outline format, each chapter independently summarizes the material of its major theme and is followed by a series of solved problems which provides both greater depth and an opportunity to clarify material which the student has not completely understood. All of the major themes expected in a one-year biology course at the introductory level are covered in the thirty-three chapters.

Although this book could serve as a primary text in elementary college biology, it is primarily intended as a supplementary text to improve the students understanding and achievement in the course. In providing solutions to the problems in the latter part of each chapter, emphasis has been placed on clarity and the importance of mastering fundamentals. Many of the problems used here are derived from actual classroom situations.

Biology need not demand relevance. Our very aliveness underscores the intimacy of the connection between the discipline of biology and our everyday concerns. I trust that the material which has been gathered here will inspire understanding in its readers and promote an excitement and reverence for life as well as responsible conserving citizenship.

I should like to thank Elizabeth Zayatz, who played a significant role in encouraging us and filtering our original product through her keen editorial acumen. Thanks are due also to Meg Tobin, who guided the final steps of manuscript preparation. But our greatest debt is to the generations of students who shared in the adventure of the pursuit of knowledge.

GEORGE H. FRIED
GEORGE J. HADEMENOS

Science is an organized system for the systematic study of particular aspects of the natural world. The scope of science is limited to those things that can be apprehended by the senses (sight, touch, hearing, etc.). Generally, science stresses an objective approach to the phenomena that are studied. Questions about nature addressed by scientists tend to emphasize how things occur rather than why they occur. It involves the application of the scientific method to problems formulated by trained minds in particular disciplines.

In the broadest sense, the scientific method refers to the working habits of practicing scientists as their curiosity guides them in discerning regularities and relationships among the phenomena they are studying. A rigorous application of common sense to the study and analysis of data also describes the methods of science. In a more formal sense, the scientific method refers to the model for research developed by Francis Bacon (15611626). This model involves the following sequence: