Department of the Army - U.S. Army Guide to Military Mountaineering

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data is available on file.

ISBN: 978-1-62873-800-1
eISBN: 978-1-62914-079-7

Printed in China

MILITARY MOUNTAINEERING

CONTENTS

DISTRIBUTION RESTRICTION: Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited. __________________________

*This publication supersedes TC 90-6-1, dated 26 April 1989.

PREFACE

Mountains exist in almost every country in the world and almost every war has included some type of mountain operations. This pattern will not change; therefore, soldiers will fight in mountainous terrain in future conflicts. Although mountain operations have not changed, several advancements in equipment and transportation have increased the soldiers capabilities. The helicopter now allows access to terrain that was once unreachable or could be reached only by slow methodical climbing. Inclement weather, however, may place various restrictions on the capabilities of air assets available to a commander. The unit must then possess the necessary mountaineering skills to overcome adverse terrain to reach an objective.

This field manual details techniques soldiers and leaders must know to cope with mountainous terrain. These techniques are the foundation upon which the mountaineer must build. They must be applied to the various situations encountered to include river crossings, glaciers, snow-covered mountains, ice climbing, rock climbing, and urban vertical environments. The degree to which this training is applied must be varied to conform to known enemy doctrine, tactics, and actions. This FM also discusses basic and advanced techniques to include acclimatization, illness and injury, equipment, anchors, evacuation, movement on glaciers, and training.

This field manual is a training aid for use by qualified personnel in conjunction with FM 3-97.6, Mountain Operations, which is used for planning operations in mountainous terrain. Personnel using FM 3-97.61 should attend a recognized Department of Defense Mountain Warfare School for proper training. Improper use of techniques and procedures by untrained personnel may result in serious injury or death. Personnel should be certified as Level I, Basic Mountaineer; Level II, Assault Climber; or Level III, Mountain Leader before using FM 3-97.61 for training (see Appendix A).

The measurements in this manual are stated as they are used in training (either metric or standard). Appendix B contains a measurement conversion chart for your convenience.

The proponent of this publication is HQ TRADOC. Submit changes for improving this publication to or on DA Form 2028 (Recommended Changes to Publications and Blank Forms) and forward to the Commander, U.S. Army Infantry School, ATTN: ATSH-RBO, Fort Benning, GA 31905-5593.

Unless otherwise stated, whenever the masculine gender is used, both men and women are included.

CHAPTER 1

MOUNTAIN TERRAIN, WEATHER, AND HAZARDS

Commanders must consider the effects terrain and weather will have on their operations, mainly on their troops and logistics efforts. Weather and terrain combine to challenge efforts in moving supplies to forward areas. Spring storms, which may deposit a foot of snow on dry roads, combined with unprepared vehicles create hazardous situations. Helicopters are a valuable asset for use in moving men and supplies, but commanders should not plan to use them as the only means of movement and resupply. Alternate methods must be planned due to the variability of weather. Units scheduled for deployment in mountainous terrain should become self-sufficient and train under various conditions. Commanders must be familiar with the restraints that the terrain can place on a unit.

Section I. MOUNTAIN TERRAIN

Operations in the mountains require soldiers to be physically fit and leaders to be experienced in operations in this terrain. Problems arise in moving men and transporting loads up and down steep and varied terrain in order to accomplish the mission. Chances for success in this environment are greater when a leader has experience operating under the same conditions as his men. Acclimatization, conditioning, and training are important factors in successful military mountaineering.

1-1. DEFINITION

Mountains are land forms that rise more than 500 meters above the surrounding plain and are characterized by steep slopes. Slopes commonly range from 4 to 45 degrees. Cliffs and precipices may be vertical or overhanging. Mountains may consist of an isolated peak, single ridges, glaciers, snowfields, compartments, or complex ranges extending for long distances and obstructing movement. Mountains usually favor the defense; however, attacks can succeed by using detailed planning, rehearsals, surprise, and well-led troops.

1-2. COMPOSITION

All mountains are made up of rocks and all rocks of minerals (compounds that cannot be broken down except by chemical action). Of the approximately 2,000 known minerals, seven rock-forming minerals make up most of the earths crust: quartz and feldspar make up granite and sandstone; olivene and pyroxene give basalt its dark color; and amphibole and biotite (mica) are the black crystalline specks in granitic rocks. Except for calcite, found in limestone, they all contain silicon and are often referred to as silicates.

1-3. ROCK AND SLOPE TYPES

Different types of rock and different slopes present different hazards. The following paragraphs discuss the characteristics and hazards of the different rocks and slopes.

a. Granite. Granite produces fewer rockfalls, but jagged edges make pulling rope and raising equipment more difficult. Granite is abrasive and increases the danger of ropes or accessory cords being cut. Climbers must beware of large loose boulders. After a rain, granite dries quickly. Most climbing holds are found in cracks. Face climbing can be found, however, it cannot be protected.

b. Chalk and Limestone. Chalk and limestone are slippery when wet. Limestone is usually solid; however, conglomerate type stones may be loose. Limestone has pockets, face climbing, and cracks.

c. Slate and Gneiss. Slate and gneiss can be firm and or brittle in the same area (red coloring indicates brittle areas). Rockfall danger is high, and small rocks may break off when pulled or when pitons are emplaced.

d. Sandstone. Sandstone is usually soft causing handholds and footholds to break away under pressure. Chocks placed in sandstone may or may not hold. Sandstone should be allowed to dry for a couple of days after a rain before climbing on itwet sandstone is extremely soft. Most climbs follow a crack. Face climbing is possible, but any outward pull will break off handholds and footholds, and it is usually difficult to protect.

e. Grassy Slopes. Penetrating roots and increased frost cracking cause a continuous loosening process. Grassy slopes are slippery after rain, new snow, and dew. After long, dry spells clumps of the slope tend to break away. Weight should be distributed evenly; for example, use flat hand push holds instead of finger pull holds.